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| − | {{Infobox military conflict|conflict=Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty
| + | Kamera Eken cena [url=http://eken.co.pl]Kamera 4k[/url] www.eken.co.pl |
| − | |partof=[[Mongol invasion of China]] and [[Kublai Khan's Campaigns]]
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| − | |image=[[File:China 11b.jpg|200px]]
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| − | |caption=Southern Song before Mongol World conquests
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| − | |date=1227/35-1279
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| − | |place=[[Northern and southern China|South China]]
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| − | |result=Mongol victory
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| − | |territory=Whole China is annexed by the [[Mongols]] under the [[Yuan dynasty]]
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| − | |combatant1= [[Mongol Empire]]
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| − | *[[Yuan dynasty]]
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| − | *[[Han Chinese|Northern Han Chinese]]
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| − | *[[Khitan people|Khitans]]
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| − | *[[Jurchen people|Jurchens]]
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| − | *[[Alans]] ([[Asud]])
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| − | *[[Turkic peoples|Turkic]]s
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| − | *Central Asians
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| − | |combatant2=[[Song dynasty]]
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| − | |commander1=[[Ögedei]]<br>[[Chagaan|Tsagaan]]<br>[[Khochu]]<br>[[Töregene]]<br>[[Güyük Khan]]<br>[[Möngke Khan]] (possibly {{KIA}})<br>[[Kublai]]<br>[[Bayan of the Baarin|Bayan]]<br>[[Aju]]<br>[[Arikhgiya]]<br>[[Shi Tianze]]<ref name="Rachewiltz1993">{{cite book|author=Igor de Rachewiltz|title=In the Service of the Khan: Eminent Personalities of the Early Mongol-Yüan Period (1200-1300)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kG45gi7E3hsC&pg=PA42#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=1993|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=978-3-447-03339-8|pages=42–}}</ref><br>[[Zhang Hongfan]]<br>[[Zhang Rou]]<br>[[Guo Kan]]
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| − | |commander2=[[Emperor Lizong of Song]]<br>[[Emperor Duzong of Song]]<br>[[Emperor Gong of Song]]<br>[[Emperor Duanzong of Song]]<br>[[Emperor Bing of Song]]{{KIA}}<br>[[Jia Sidao]]<br>Lü Wenhuan<br>Li Tingzhi<br>[[Zhang Shijie]]<br>[[Wen Tianxiang]]
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| − | |strength1=More than 450,000 (including the [[Mongols]], the Khitan, the Jurchens, the [[Chinese people|Chinese]], the Alans, the Turkics, Central Asians)
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| − | |strength2=unknown
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| − | |casualties1= Very heavy
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| − | |casualties2= Unknown
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| − | }}
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| − | {{Campaignbox Mongol invasions}}
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| − | {{Campaignbox Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty}}
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| − | The '''Mongol conquest of the [[Song dynasty]]''' under [[Kublai Khan]] (r. 1260–1294) was the final step for the Mongols to rule the whole of China under the [[Yuan dynasty]]. It is also considered the [[Mongol Empire]]'s last great military achievement.<ref>C. P. Atwood ''Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire'', p.509</ref>
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| − | __TOC__
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| − | == Background ==
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| − | {{See also|Jin–Song Wars|History of the Song dynasty}}
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| − | Before the [[Mongol–Jin War]] escalated, an envoy from the [[Song dynasty]] arrived at the court of the Mongols, perhaps to negotiate a united offensive against the [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin dynasty]], who the Song had previously fought during the [[Jin–Song Wars]]. Although [[Genghis Khan]] refused, on his death in 1227 he bequeathed a plan to attack the Jin capital by passing through Song territory. Subsequently, a Mongol [[ambassador]] was killed by the Song governor in uncertain circumstances.<ref>Henry Hoyle Howorth, Ernest George Ravenstein ''History of the Mongols'', p.228</ref> Before receiving any explanation, the Mongols marched through Song territory to enter the Jin's redoubt in [[Henan]]. In 1233 the Song dynasty finally became an ally of the Mongols, who agreed to share territories south of the [[Yellow River]] with the Song. Song general Meng Gong defeated the Jin general Wu Xian and directed his troops to besiege the city of Caizhou, to which the last emperor of the Jurchen had fled. With the help of the Mongols, the Song armies were finally able to extinguish the Jin dynasty that had occupied northern China for more than a century. A year later, the Song generals fielded their armies to occupy the old capitals of the Song, but they were completely repelled by the Mongol garrisons under Tachir, a descendant of Boorchu, who was a famed companion of Genghis Khan. Thus the Mongol troops, headed by sons of the [[Ögedei Khan]], started their slow but steady invasion of the south. The Song forces resisted fiercely, which resulted in a prolonged set of campaigns; however, the primary obstacles to the prosecution of their campaigns was unfamiliar terrain that was inhospitable to their horses, new diseases, and the need to wage naval battles, a form of warfare completely alien to the masters of the steppe. This combination resulted in one of the most difficult and prolonged wars of the Mongol conquests.<ref>{{cite book |url = https://books.google.com/books?ei=1AfUTtfIIqbf0QHY-ukW&ct=result&id=OgQXAQAAIAAJ&dq=For+his+part+Kublai+dedicated+himself+totally+to+the+task%2C+but+it+was+still+to+be+the+Mongol%27s+thoughest+war.+The+Sung+Chinese+showed+themselves+to+be+the+most+resilient+of+foes.+Southern+China+was+not+only+densely+populated+and+full+of+strongly+walled+cities.+It+was+also+a+land+of+mountain+ranges+and+wide+fast-flowing&q=+chinese+resilient+foes |title=The Mongol Warlords: Genghis Khan, Kublai Khan, Hulegu, Tamerlane |first1=David |last1=Nicolle |first2=Richard |last2=Hook |accessdate=2011-11-28 |edition=illustrated |series= |volume= |date= |year=1998 |month= |publisher=Brockhampton Press |location= |language= |isbn=1-86019-407-9 |page=57 |pages= |quote=For his part Kublai dedicated himself totally to the task, but it was still to be the Mongol's toughest war. The Sung Chinese showed themselves to be the most resilient of foes. Southern China was not only densely populated and full of strongly walled cities. It was also a land of mountain ranges and wide fast-flowing }}</ref> The Chinese offered the fiercest resistance of among all the Mongols fought, the Mongols required every single advantage they could gain and "every military artifice known at that time" in order to win.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BZf_L1V7NLUC&pg=PA173 |title=A Short History of the Chinese People|author=L. Carrington Goodrich|accessdate=2011-11-28 |edition=illustrated |series= |volume= |date= |year=2002 |month= |publisher=Courier Dover Publications |location= |language= |isbn=0-486-42488-X |page=173 |pages= |quote=Unquestionably in the Chinese the Mongols encountered more stubborn opposition and better defense than any of their other opponents in Europe and Asia had shown. They needed every military artifice known at that time, for they had to fight in terrain that was difficult for their horses, in regions infested with diseases fatal to large numbers of their forces, and in boats to which they were not accustomed.}}</ref> A greater amount of "stubborn resistance" was put up by Korea and Song China towards the Mongol invasions than the others in Eurasia who were swiftly crushed by the Mongols at a lightning pace.<ref name="Derven2000">{{cite book|author=H. J. Van Derven|title=Warfare in Chinese History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IXKkCXDvYFYC&pg=PA222#v=onepage&q&f=false|date=1 January 2000|publisher=BRILL|isbn=90-04-11774-1|pages=222–}}</ref>
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| − | The Mongol force which invaded southern China was far greater than the force they sent to invade the Middle East in 1256.<ref>[http://www.jstor.org/stable/606298 Smith, Jr. 1998], p. 54.</ref>
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| − | [[File:Song Lizong.jpg|right|190px|thumb|[[Emperor Lizong of Song]]]] | + | |
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| − | ===Han defectors===
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| − | Many Han Chinese defected to the Mongols to fight against the Jin. Two Han Chinese leaders, [[Shi Tianze]], [[Liu Heima]] ([[w:zh:劉黑馬|劉黑馬]], Liu Ni),<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?ei=oj8sVYfZEYb4yASM8oCADQ&id=1yMnAQAAIAAJ&dq=liu+heima+mongols&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=liu+heima+ Collectif 2002], p. 147.</ref><ref>http://big5.xjass.com/ls/content/2013-02/27/content_267592.htm</ref><ref>http://www.wenxue100.com/book_LiShi/138_190.thtml</ref><ref>http://www.iqh.net.cn/info.asp?column_id=7794</ref> and the Khitan [[Xiao Zhala]] ([[w:zh:蕭札剌|蕭札剌]]) defected and commanded the 3 Tumens in the Mongol army.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=NfzOAAAAMAAJ&q=Ogodei+divided+them+into+three+tiimens+%28Chinese:+wan-hu%29+and+thirty-six+minqat+commanded+by+the+Khitan+Hsiao+Cha-la+and+Hans+Liu+Ni+%28Heima%29+and+Shi-+T%27ien-tse.+By+1234,+three+and+perhaps+more+lumen-it+noyad+were+posted.+The+three+...&dq=Ogodei+divided+them+into+three+tiimens+%28Chinese:+wan-hu%29+and+thirty-six+minqat+commanded+by+the+Khitan+Hsiao+Cha-la+and+Hans+Liu+Ni+%28Heima%29+and+Shi-+T%27ien-tse.+By+1234,+three+and+perhaps+more+lumen-it+noyad+were+posted.+The+three+...&hl=en&sa=X&ei=_z8sVYkri6rJBIT1gMgH&ved=0CB8Q6AEwAA May 2004], p. 50.</ref><ref>http://123.125.114.20/view/ca3dae260722192e4536f629.html?re=view</ref><ref>http://121.199.12.114:99/main/wz_xs.tom?c_name=%CF%F4%D7%D3%CF%D4&d_id=wzadd20120314102439zw&searh_text=</ref><ref>http://www.docin.org/p-716638698.html</ref> Liu Heima and Shi Tianze served Ogödei Khan.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=F00qAQAAMAAJ&q=%28Brief+history+of+the+Black+Tartars%29+which+lists+the+men+who+held+posts+under+Og%C3%B6dei,+or+more+precisely,+from+the+last+two+families,+Shi+Tianze+and+Liu+Heima+%23%23%23%23%23,+see+Meng-ta+peilu+und+Hei-ta+shih+liieh,+translated+by+E.+Haenisch+and+Yao+Ts%27ung-wu,+edited+by+P.+Olbricht+and+E.+Pinks,+%E2%80%9CAsiatische+Forschungen%E2%80%9D,+Bd.+56+%28Wiesbaden:+Otto+Harrassowitz,+1980%29,+pp.+202-206.+and+professional&dq=%28Brief+history+of+the+Black+Tartars%29+which+lists+the+men+who+held+posts+under+Og%C3%B6dei,+or+more+precisely,+from+the+last+two+families,+Shi+Tianze+and+Liu+Heima+%23%23%23%23%23,+see+Meng-ta+peilu+und+Hei-ta+shih+liieh,+translated+by+E.+Haenisch+and+Yao+Ts%27ung-wu,+edited+by+P.+Olbricht+and+E.+Pinks,+%E2%80%9CAsiatische+Forschungen%E2%80%9D,+Bd.+56+%28Wiesbaden:+Otto+Harrassowitz,+1980%29,+pp.+202-206.+and+professional&hl=en&sa=X&ei=f0AsVd_hPM-KyASpzoHADg&ved=0CB0Q6AEwAA Schram 1987], p. 130.</ref> Liu Heima and Shi Tianxiang led armies against Western Xia for the Mongols.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=MztuAAAAMAAJ&q=liu+heima+mongols&dq=liu+heima+mongols&hl=en&sa=X&ei=oj8sVYfZEYb4yASM8oCADQ&ved=0CCYQ6AEwAg eds. Seaman, Marks 1991], p. 175.</ref> There were 4 Han Tumens, with each Tumen consisting of 10,000 troops. The four Han Generals Zhang Rou, Yan Shi, Shi Tianze, and Liu Heima commanded the four Han tumens under Ogödei Khan.<ref>http://d.wanfangdata.com.cn/periodical/xbsdxb-shkxb200106008</ref><ref>http://www.nssd.org/articles/article_detail.aspx?id=5638208</ref><ref>https://zh.wikisource.org/zh-hant/新元史/卷146</ref><ref>http://www.klxsw.com/files/article/html/87/87953/23237374.html</ref>
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| − | Shi Tianze was a Han Chinese who lived in the [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)]]. Interethnic marriage between Han and Jurchen became common at this time. His father was Shi Bingzhi (史秉直, Shih Ping-chih). Shi Bingzhi was married to a Jurchen woman (surname Na-ho) and a Han Chinese woman (surname Chang), it is unknown which of them was Shi Tianze's mother.<ref name="ed. de Rachewiltz 1993">[https://books.google.com/books?id=kG45gi7E3hsC&pg=PA41#v=onepage&q&f=false ed. de Rachewiltz 1993], p. 41.</ref> Shi Tianze was married to two Jurchen women, a Han Chinese woman, and a Korean woman, and his son Shi Gang was born to one of his Jurchen wives.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=FPzcTT-pBp4C&pg=PA47&dq=Shi+Tianze+1202+1275&hl=en&sa=X&ei=Ac1WU8LQEMzgsASOroDQCg&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Shi%20Tianze%201202%201275&f=false Kinoshita 2013], p. 47.</ref> His Jurchen wive's surnames were Mo-nien and Na-ho, his Korean wife's surname was Li, and his Han Chinese wife's surname was Shi.<ref name="ed. de Rachewiltz 1993"/> Shi Tianze defected to the [[Mongol Empire]]'s forces upon [[Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty|their invasion of the Jin dynasty]]. His son Shi Gang married a Kerait woman, the Kerait were Mongolified Turkic people and considered as part of the "Mongol nation".<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=nCIPD1V39QkC&pg=PA14#v=onepage&q&f=false Watt 2010], p. 14.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=FPzcTT-pBp4C&pg=PA47&dq=Shi+Gang+%281237-1315%29&hl=en&sa=X&ei=Ds5WU5-mC4_MsQTctICAAw&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Shi%20Gang%20%281237-1315%29&f=false Kinoshita 2013], p. 47.</ref> Shi Tianze (Shih T'ien-tse), [[Zhang Rou]] (Chang Jou, [[w:zh:張柔|張柔]]), and [[Yan Shi]] (Yen Shih, [[w:zh:嚴實|嚴實]]) and other high ranking Chinese who served in the Jin dynasty and defected to the Mongols helped build the structure for the administration of the new state.<ref>Chan, Hok-Lam. 1997. “A Recipe to Qubilai Qa'an on Governance: The Case of Chang Te-hui and Li Chih”. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 7 (2). Cambridge University Press: 257–83. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25183352.</ref> [[Chagaan]] (Tsagaan) and Zhang Rou jointly launched an attack on the Song dynasty ordered by [[Töregene Khatun]].
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| − | The Yuan dynasty created a "Han Army" (漢軍) out of defected Jin troops and an army of defected Song troops called the "Newly Submitted Army" (新附軍).<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=8hOgAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA66&dq=han+tumen+khitan&hl=en&sa=X&ei=Ij8sVefWHaXIsATnqID4AQ&ved=0CEwQ6AEwBw#v=onepage&q=han%20tumen%20khitan&f=false Hucker 1985], p.66.</ref>
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| − | === The 1227 incident ===
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| − | In the early spring of 1227, Genghis Khan ordered a small fraction of the army to advance into Song's [[Circuit (administrative division)|Circuit]] of Lizhou (利州路), in the name of attacking Jīn and [[Western Xia|W. Xia]]. The five [[Zhou (country subdivision)|''zhou'']]s of Jie（階）, Feng （鳳）, Cheng（成）, He （和） and Tianshui（天水）were ravaged. Then the Mongols moved southward and seized Wénzhou（文州）. In July, the Mongols returned to the north. Genghis Khan further realized that to destory the Jīn dynasty the Mongol army must make its way via the Song. The 1227 incident（丁亥之變） was the first armed conflict between the Mongols and the Song. But until this time the main target of the Mongols was Jīn dynasty.<ref>陈世松等《宋元战争史》，内蒙古人民出版社，2010年，第20-21页</ref>
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| − | === Battles of Shukou ===
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| − | From the winter of 1230 to the autumn of 1231, the Mongols forcibly passed through the Song dynasty. In the region centered on the three passes of Shukou（蜀口）, they entered into a series of battles with the Song army. This was the second and largest armed confict between them before the Mongol conquest of Song officially began.<ref>陈世松等，第22页</ref>
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| − | == First stage (1235–48) ==
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| − | From 1235 on, the [[Mongol]] general Kuoduan Hequ started to attack the region of Sichuan through the Chengdu plain. The occupation of this region had often been an important step for the conquest of the south. The important city of [[Xiangyang District, Xiangfan|Xiangyang]], the gateway to the [[Yangtze]] plain, which was defended by the Song general Cao Youwen, capitulated in 1236.<ref>John Man ''Kublai Khan'', p.158</ref> In the east, meanwhile, Song generals like Meng Gong and Du Guo withstood the pressure of the Mongol armies under Kouwen Buhua because the main Mongol forces were at that time moving towards Europe. In [[Sichuan]], governor Yu Jie adopted the plan of the brothers Ran Jin and Ran Pu to fortify important locations in mountainous areas, like Diaoyucheng (modern Hechuan/Sichuan). From this point, Yu Jie was able to hold Sichuan for a further ten years. In 1239, General Meng defeated the Mongols and retook Xiangyang, contesting Sichuan against the Mongols for years.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CHzGvqRbV_IC&pg=PA282 |title=The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia|author=René Grousset|year=1970|publisher=Rutgers University Press|edition=reprint|location=|isbn=0-8135-1304-9|page=282|pages=|accessdate=2010-10-28}}</ref> The only permanent gain was [[Chengdu]] for the Mongols in 1241. In the [[Huai River]] area, the [[Mongol Empire]]'s commanders remained on the defensive, taking few major Song cities, although [[Töregene]] and [[Güyük Khan]] ordered their generals to attack the Song.<ref>C. P. Atwood-Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire'''', p.509</ref>
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| − | [[File:Mongol warrior of Genghis Khan.jpg|thumb|left|Mongol warrior on horseback, preparing a mounted archery shot.]]
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| − | The conflicts between the Mongols and the Song troops took place in the area of [[Chengdu]]. When Töregene sent her envoys to negotiate peace, the Song imprisoned them.<ref>Jeremiah Curtin ''The Mongols A History'', p.343</ref> The Mongols captured [[Hangzhou]] and invaded [[Sichuan]] in 1242. Their commanders ordered Zhang Rou and Chagaan ([[Chagaan|Tsagaan]]) to attack the [[Song dynasty|Song]]. When they pillaged Song territory, the Song court sent a delegation to negotiate a [[ceasefire]]. Chagaan and Zhang Rou returned north after the Mongols accepted the terms.<ref>J.Bor ''Mongol hiiged Eurasiin diplomat shastir, vol.II'', p.224</ref>
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| − | An account of the Mongol attack on Nanjing was given in a Chinese annal, describing the Chinese defenders use of gunpowder against the Mongols:{{quote|1="As the Mongols had dug themselves pits under the earth where they were sheltered from missiles, we decided to bind with iron the machines called ''chen-t'ien-lei'' [thunder-shaking-the-sky]. . . and lowered them into the places",<ref>John Merton Patrick, 1961, "Artillery and warfare during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries (Monograph series)," Vol. 8, No. 3, Logan, Utah:Utah State University Press, p. 10, see [https://books.google.com/books/about/Artillery_and_warfare_during_the_thirtee.html?id=6GMFAAAAMAAJ], accessed 30 December 2014.</ref>}} where the translation of the term for the device is that of Prof. Partington, who describes it as an iron pot filled with [huo] yao, literally "fire drug", a low-nitrate [[gunpowder]] or proto-gunpowder, sometimes lowered on chains, that sent forth "fire… out of every part," with an incendiary effect over many yards that could pierce metal to which it was attached, producing a "noise like thunder" that could be heard for miles, with the result that "the men and the oxhides were all broken into fragments (''chieh sui'') flying in all directions".<ref>J. R. Partington, 1960, "A History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder," Baltimore, Md.:Johns Hopkins University Press, ISBN 0801859549, pp. 243, 268, 244, see [https://www.google.com/search?client=safari&rls=en&q=A+History+of+Greek+Fire+and+Gunpowder&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8#], accessed 30 December 2014.</ref><ref name=Hutchinson98>See also: ''zhen tian lei'', or ''chen t'ien lei'' (entry), in The Hutchinson Dictionary of Ancient & Medieval Warfare, Matthew Bennett, Ed., 1998, Abingdon, UK:Taylor & Francis, p. 356, ISBN 1579581161, see [https://books.google.com/books/about/The_Hutchinson_Dictionary_of_Ancient_Med.html?id=04S4YdDarD0C], accessed 30 December 2014. The entry reads, substantially, as follows:{{quote|1="''zhen tian lei'' (or ''chen t'ien lei'') (Chinese 'heaven-shaking thunder') medieval Chinese explosive bombs first used by the Jurchen Jin dynasty at the siege of the Song Chinese city of Qizhou in 1221… [Replacing bamboo enclosures,] the ''zhen tian lei'' had a cast-iron casing [that produced] a genuine fragmentation bomb. [They] were used by the Jin in defense of Kaifeng…, by the Song defenders of Xiangyang… and other cities, and in the Mongol invasions of Japan. They were launched from trebuchets, or even lowered on chains into besiegers approach trenches. The fragments pierced iron armor and the explosion could be heard 50 km / 31 miles away."}}</ref>
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| − | == Second stage (1251–60) ==
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| − | The Mongol attacks on [[Southern Song]] China intensified with the election of [[Möngke]] as [[Great Khan]] in 1251. Passing through the Chengdu Plain in [[Sichuan]], the Mongols conquered the [[Kingdom of Dali]] in modern Yunnan in 1253. Möngke's brother [[Kublai]] and general Uriyangqadai pacified Yunnan and Tibet and invaded the [[Trần dynasty]] in [[Vietnam]]. The Mongols besieged Ho-chiou and lifted the siege very soon in 1254.
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| − | In October 1257 Möngke set out for South China and fixed his camps near the Liu-pan mountains in May. He entered Sichuan in 1258 with two-thirds of the Mongol strength. In 1259 Möngke died of [[cholera]] or [[dysentery]] during the battle of [[Fishing Town|Diaoyucheng]] that was defended by Wang Jian. The Chinese general [[Jia Sidao]] collaborated with Kublai and took the opportunity of Möngke's death to occupy Sichuan as subject of the Mongols.
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| − | The central government of the Southern Song meanwhile was unable to cope with the challenge of the Mongols and new peasant uprisings in the region of modern Fujian led by Yan Mengbiao and Hunan. The court of Emperor Lizong was dominated by consort clans, Yan and Jia, and the eunuchs Dong Songchen and Lu Yunsheng. In 1260 Jia Sidao became chancellor who took control over the new emperor Zhao Qi (posthumous title Song Duzong) and expelled his opponents like Wen Tianxiang and Li Fu. Because the financial revenue of the late Southern Song state was very low, Jia Sidao tried to reform the regulations for the merchandise of lands with his state field law.
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| − | Gunpowder weapons like the ''t'u huo ch'iang'' were deployed by the Chinese against the Mongol forces, which fired bullets from bamboo tubes.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?ei=7GQzTv7dFNPTgAe1mdzrDA&ct=result&id=6GMFAAAAMAAJ&dq=battle+of+mohi+chinese+gunpowder&q=chinese++artillery+tubes+shot+bulets+|title=Artillery and warfare during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries |author=John Merton Patrick|accessdate=2011-11-28 |edition= |series= |volume=Volume 8, Issue 3 of Monograph series |date= |year=1961 |month= |publisher=Utah State University Press |location= |language= |isbn= |page=14 |pages= |quote=overthrown, as we shall see — since the final counter-offensive launched by the Chinese against their Mongol overlords of the Yuan dynasty is a story in which artillery features significantly. By 1259 at least, if not earlier during the first Mongol invasions, the Chinese were using tubes that shot bullets. The t'u huo ch'iang ("rushing- forth fire- gun") was a long bamboo tube into which bullets in the true sense (tzu-k'o) }}</ref>
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| − | == Prelude, and surrender of the Song dynasty (1260–1276) ==
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| − | {{refimprove section|date=December 2014}}
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| − | {{see also|Yuan dynasty}}
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| − | [[File:YuanEmperorAlbumKhubilaiPortrait.jpg|thumb|right|[[Kublai Khan]], the [[Great Khan]] of the Mongol Empire and Emperor of the [[Yuan dynasty]]. Painting from 1294.]]
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| − | <!--Earlier Readers Digest (RD) source here deleted because its date range contradicts preceding Partington and Patrick scholarly references to earlier use of gunpowder, because the source does not specifically say what the text says (and what RD does say is at odds with this text), and because Readers Digest is not an acceptable scholarly historical source, in any case. Compare before and after edits in Edit history.-->
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| − | After [[Kublai]] was elected Great Khan of the Mongols in 1260 he was eventually able to conquer the Song to the south, but at great cost. From 1260 to 1264, he faced civil insurrection within the Mongol side led by his younger brother, [[Ariq Böke]], who had been left in command of the north and stationed at the Mongol capital, [[Karakorum]]. This led to the [[Toluid Civil War]] and was followed by a major confrontation at the [[Diaoyu Fortress]] in Sichuan in 1265. The Mongols eventually defeated the Song land and naval armies and captured more than 100 ships.<ref>Warren I. Cohen ''East Asia at the center: four thousand years of engagement with the world'', p.136</ref>
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| − | In 1268, the Mongol advance was halted at the city of [[Xiangzhou District, Xiangyang|Xiangyang]], situated on the Han River, which controlled access to the [[Yangtze]], the gateway to the important trading centre of [[Hangzhou]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KTTELJ9N0XUC&pg=PA64 |title=Mongol Warrior 1200-1350|author1=Stephen Turnbull |author2=Wayne Reynolds |year=2003|publisher=Osprey Publishing|edition=illustrated|location=|isbn=1-84176-583-X|page=8|pages=|accessdate=2010-10-28}}</ref> The walls of Xiangyang were approximately {{convert|6|to|7|m}} thick and encompassed an area {{convert|5|km}} wide. The main entrances in the wall led out to a waterway impossible to ford in the summer, and impassable as a swamp and a series of ponds and mud flats in the winter. Xiangyang was linked to its twin city, Fencheng, on the opposite riverbank, by a pontoon bridge spanning the river from where the defenders of the twin settlements attempted to break the siege. However, the Mongols under [[Aju]] thwarted every attempt and crushed all reinforcements from the Song, each detachment numbering in the thousands.<ref>John Man ''Kublai Khan'', p.168</ref>
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| − | After this defeat, Aju asked Kublai for the powerful [[siege machine]]s of the [[Ilkhanate]]. [[Ismail (mangonel expert)|Ismail]] and [[Al al-Din|Al-aud-Din]], from Mosul, [[Iraq]], arrived in South China to construct a new type of counterweight-driven [[trebuchet]] that could use explosive shells. The Mosuli engineers built the new siege trebuchets, and smaller [[mangonel]]s,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?ei=5fLhTZSdHZTpgAel0-nHBg&ct=result&id=UOiGAAAAMAAJ&dq=These+siege+engines+could+accurately+lob+huge+missiles+capable+of+demolishing+stone+castles+and+they+quickly+knocked+down+Xianyang%27s+mud+walls&q=xianyang+foreign+engineers+persia+mangonels+catapults|title=City of heavenly tranquility: Beijing in the history of China|author=Jasper Becker|year=2008|publisher=Oxford University Press|edition=illustrated|location=|isbn=0-19-530997-9|page=64|pages=|accessdate=2010-10-28}}</ref> and traction trebuchets as well.{{citation needed|date=December 2014}} The design of the critical new counterweight trebuchets were taken from those used by [[Hulagu]] to [[battle of Baghdad (1258)|batter down the walls of Baghdad]] in 1258.
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| − | Explosive shells had been in use in China for centuries, but the counterweight system of the trebuchet (as opposed to the torsion-type) gave greater range and accuracy while also making it easier to judge the force generated (versus by the torsion from repeated windings).<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ug_twStv-4sC&pg=PA53 |title=Chinese Walled Cities 221 BC-AD 1644|author1=Stephen Turnbull |author2=Steve Noon |year=2009|publisher=Osprey Publishing|edition=illustrated|location=|isbn=1-84603-381-0|page=53|pages=|accessdate=2010-10-28}}</ref> As such, the counterweight trebuchet built by the Persians were, practically speaking, greater in range,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1fb7tBwv4ZYC&pg=PA190 |title=Fighting techniques of the Oriental world, AD 1200-1860: equipment, combat skills, and tactics|author1=Michael E. Haskew |author2=Christer Joregensen |author3=Eric Niderost |author4=Chris McNab |year=2008|publisher=Macmillan|edition=illustrated|location=|isbn=0-312-38696-6|page=190|pages=|accessdate=2010-10-28}}</ref> and so could assist in destroying the walls at Fancheng with greater safety to the Mongol forces.{{citation needed|date=December 2014}} The Muslim and additional Chinese engineers operated the artillery and siege engines for the Mongol armies.{{sfn|Grousset|1970|p=283}} Hence, the Chinese, who were the first to invent the traction trebuchet,{{citation needed|date=December 2014}} now faced Persian-designed counterweight trebuchets on the side of the Mongol army, so by 1273 the Chinese were led to build their own counterweight trebuchets; as an account states, "In 1273 the frontier cities had all fallen. But Muslim trebuchets were constructed with new and ingenious improvements, and different kinds became available, far better than those used before."<ref name="Stephen R. Turnbull 2003 63">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N2MMD0yfxyAC&pg=PA63 |title=Genghis Khan & the Mongol conquests, 1190-1400|author=Stephen R. Turnbull|year=2003|publisher=Osprey Publishing|edition=illustrated|location=|isbn=1-84176-523-6|page=63|pages=|accessdate=2010-10-28}}</ref>
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| − | During the siege, both the Mongol and Song forces used [[thunder crash bomb]]s, a type of incendiary gunpowder weapon of cast iron, filled with gunpowder. Each was delivered via trebuchet or by other means. The effects of these shells on men and natural materials was devastating, the noise destructive and resounding for many miles while iron armor could be penetrated by the bomb's casing during the explosion.<ref name=Hutchinson98/> The Mongols also utilized siege crossbows, and the Song used fire arrows and fire lances as well.{{citation needed|date=December 2014}}
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| − | Political infighting in the Song also contributed to the fall of Xiangyang and Fancheng, due to the power of the Lu family. Many questioned their allegiance to the Song, and the Emperor barred [[Jia Sidao]] himself from the command. Li Tingzhi, an enemy of the Lu family, was appointed commander. Jia permitted the Lu to ignore Li's orders, resulting in a fractious command. Li was then unable to relieve Xiangyang and Fancheng, managing only temporary resupply during several breaks in the siege.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t203wZyNqIwC&pg=PA84 |title=War, politics and society in early modern China, 900-1795|author=Peter Allan Lorge|year=2005|publisher=Taylor & Francis|edition=|location=|isbn=0-415-31690-1|page=84|pages=|accessdate=2010-10-28}}</ref>
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| − | [[Bayan of the Baarin]], the Mongol commander, then sent half of his force up-river to wade to the south bank in order to build a bridge across to take the Yang lo fortress; three thousand Song boats came up the Han river and were repulsed, with fifty boats destroyed and 2,000 dead.{{citation needed|date=December 2014}} In the maritime engagements, the Song forces used [[Paddle steamer#History|paddle ships]],<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0TjxaHltoY0C&pg=PA12 |title=Siege weapons of the Far East: AD 960-1644|author=Stephen Turnbull|year=2002|publisher=Osprey Publishing|edition=illustrated|location=|isbn=1-84176-340-3|page=12|pages=|accessdate=2010-10-28}}</ref> and on some ships at least, fire lance, siege crossbows, and incendiary devices were deployed against Mongol forces.<ref name="Stephen R. Turnbull 2003 63"/>
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| − | [[File:Yuan Dynasty 1294.png|thumb|right|250px|The [[Yuan dynasty]] under Kublai Khan after the conquest of Southern Song dynasty.]]
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| − | Xiangyang's commander then surrendered to the Mongol commander. The entire force, now including the yielding commander, sailed down the Yangtze, and the forts along the way fell, as this commander, now allied with the Mongols, had also commanded many of the down-river garrisons.{{citation needed|date=December 2014}} In 1270, Kublai ordered the construction of five thousand [[ships]]. Three years later, an additional two thousand ships were ordered built; these would carry about 50,000 troops to give battle to the Song. In 1273, Fancheng capitulated, the Mongols putting the entire population to the sword to terrorize the inhabitants of Xiangyang. After the surrender of the city of Xiangyang, several thousand ships were deployed. The Song fleet, despite their deployment as a coastal defense fleet or coast guard more than an operational [[navy]], was more than a match for the Mongols. Under his great general Bayan, Khublai unleashed a riverine attack upon the defended city of Xiangyang on the Han River. The Mongols prevailed, ultimately, but it would take five more years of hard combat to do so.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tW_eEVbVxpEC&pg=PA1115 |title=Dictionary of battles and sieges: a guide to 8,500 battles from antiquity through the twenty-first century, Volume 3|author=Tony Jaques|editor=Tony Jaques|year=2007|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|edition=|location=|isbn=0-313-33539-7|page=1115|pages=|accessdate=2010-10-28}}</ref>
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| − | Kublai had founded the [[Yuan dynasty]] in 1271, and by 1273, the Mongols had emerged victorious on the Han River.{{citation needed|date=December 2014}} The Yangtse River was opened for a large fleet that could conquer the Southern Song empire. A year later, the child-prince Zhao Xian was made emperor. Resistance continued, resulting in Bayan's massacre of the inhabitants of [[Changzhou]] in 1275 and mass suicide of the defenders at [[Changsha]] in January 1276. When the Yuan Mongol-Chinese troops and fleet advanced and one prefecture after the other submitted to the Yuan, Jia Sidao offered his own submission, but the Yuan chancellor Bayan refused. The last contingents of the Song empire were heavily defeated, the old city of Jiankang (Jiangsu) fell, and Jia Sidao was killed. The capital of Song, Lin'an (Hangzhou), was defended by Wen Tianxiang and Zhang Shijie. When Bayan and Dong Wenbing camped outside Lin'an in February 1276, the Song [[Empress Xie Daoqing|Grand Empress Dowager Xie]] and [[Empress Quan (Duzong)|Empress Dowager Quan]] surrendered the underage [[Emperor Gong of Song]] along with the imperial seal. Emperor Gong abdicated, but faithful loyalists like Zhang Jue, Wen Tianxiang, Zhang Shijie and [[Lu Xiufu]] successively enthroned the emperor's younger brothers Zhao Shi and Zhao Bing. Zhao Shi was enthroned as [[Emperor Duanzong of Song]] far from the capital in the region of Fuzhou but he died soon afterwards on the flight southwards into modern Guangdong. Zhao Bing was enthroned as [[Emperor Bing of Song|Emperor Huaizong of Song]] on [[Lantau Island]], Hong Kong. On March 19, 1279 the Mongols defeated the last of the Song forces at the naval [[Battle of Yamen]]. After the battle, as a last defiant act against the invaders, Lu Xiufu embraced the eight-year-old emperor and the pair leapt to their deaths from [[Yamen (town)|Mount Ya]], thus marking the extinction of the Southern Song.
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| − | == Last stand of the Song loyalists (1276–79) ==
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| − | {{main article|Battle of Yamen}}
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| − | [[File:Song Modi.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[Emperor Bing of Song|Emperor Bing]], the last Song emperor claimant.]]
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| − | [[Empress Xie Daoqing|Empress Dowager Xie]] had secretly sent the child emperor's two younger brothers to [[Fuzhou]]. The strongholds of the Song loyalists fell one by one: Yangzhou in 1276, [[Chongqing]] in 1277 and [[Hezhou]] in 1279. The loyalists fought the Mongols in the mountainous [[Fujian]]–[[Guangdong]]–[[Jiangxi]] borderland. In February 1279, [[Wen Tianxiang]], one of the Song loyalists, was captured and executed at the Yuan capital [[Khanbaliq]] (Dadu, modern [[Beijing]]).
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| − | The end of the Mongol-Song war occurred on 19 March 1279, when 1000 Song warships faced a fleet of 300 to 700 Yuan Mongol warships at [[Yamen]]. The Yuan fleet was commanded by [[Zhang Hongfan]] (1238–1280), a northern Chinese, and [[Li Heng]] (1236–1285), a [[Tangut people|Tangut]]. Catapults as a weapon system were rejected by Kublai's court, for they feared the Song fleet would break out if they used such weapons. Instead, they developed a plan for a maritime siege, in order to starve the Song into submission.
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| − | But at the outset, there was a defect in the Song tactics that would later be exploited by Yuan at the conclusion of the battle. The Song wanted a stronger defensive position, and the Song fleet "roped itself together in a solid mass[,]" in an attempt to create a nautical skirmish line. Results were disastrous for the Song: they could neither attack nor maneuver. Escape was also impossible, for the Song warships lacked any nearby base. On 12 March, a number of Song combatants defected to the Mongol side. On 13 March, a Song squadron attacked some of the Mongols' northern patrol boats. If this action was an attempted breakout, it failed. By 17 March, Li Heng and Zhang Hongfan opted for a decisive battle. Four Mongol fleets moved against the Song: Li Heng attacked from the north and northwest; Zhang would proceed from the southwest; the last two fleets attacked from the south and west. Weather favored the Mongols that morning. Heavy fog and rain obscured the approach of Li Heng's dawn attack. The movement of the tide and the southwestern similarly benefited the movement of the Mongol fleet which, in short order, appeared to the north of the Song. It was an unusual attack in that the Mongol fleet engaged the Song fleet stern first.
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| − | Prior to the battle, the Mongols constructed archery platforms for their [[Marine (military)|marines]]. The position enabled the archers to direct a higher, more concentrated rate of missile fire against the enemy. Fire teams of seven or eight archers manned these platforms, and they proved devastatingly effective as the battle commenced at close quarter.
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| − | Li Heng's first attack cut the Song rope that held the Chinese fleet together. Fighting raged in [[Close combat|close quarters combat]]. Before midday, the Song lost three of their ships to the Mongols. By forenoon, Li's ships broke through the Song's outer line, and two other Mongol squadrons destroyed the Song formation in the northwest corner. Around this time, the tide shifted; Li's ships drifted to the opposite direction, the north.
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| − | [[File:Mongol dominions1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Mongol dominions, c. 1300. The gray area is the later [[Timurid Empire]].]]
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| − | The Song believed that the Mongols were halting the attack and dropped their guard. Zhang Hongfan's fleet, riding the northern current, then attacked the Song ships. Zhang was determined to capture the Song admiral, Zuo Tai. The Yuan flagship was protected by shields to negate the Song missile fire. Later, when Zhang captured the Song flagship, his own vessel was riddled with arrows. Li Heng's fleet also returned to the battle. By late afternoon, the battle was over, and the last of the Song navy surrendered.
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| − | The ruling elite were unwilling to submit to Yuan rule, and opted for death by suicide. The Song councilor, who had been tasked with holding the infant child-emperor of the Song in his arms during the battle, also elected to join the Song leaders in death. It is uncertain whether he or others decided that the infant Emperor should die as well. The councilor therefore jumped into the sea, still holding the child in his arms. Tens of thousands of Song officials and women threw themselves into the sea and drowned. The last Song emperor died with his entourage, held in the arms of his councilor. With his death, the final remnants of the Song resistance were eliminated. The victory of this naval campaign marked the completion of Kublai's conquest of China, and the onset of the consolidated Mongol Yuan dynasty.
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| − | Members of the Song Imperial Family continued to live in the Yuan dynasty like [[Emperor Gong of Song]], [[Zhao Mengfu]], and [[Zhao Yong]]. Zhao Mengfu painted at the Yuan court and was personally interviewed by Kublai Khan. This practice was referred to as [[w:zh:二王三恪|二王三恪]].
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| − | In the process of the Mongols invasion of [[China proper]], many [[Han people]] were enslaved by the Mongols.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Rodriguez|first1=Junius P.|title=The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9780874368857|page=146|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&lpg=PA146&dq=chinese%20slaves%20mongols%20manchu&pg=PA146#v=onepage&q=chinese%20slaves%20mongols%20manchu&f=false|accessdate=20 March 2017|language=en}}</ref> Moreover, according to Japanese historian Sugiyama Masaaki (杉山正明) and Funada Yoshiyuki (舩田善之), there were also certain number of Mongolian slaves owned by Han Chinese during the [[Yuan dynasty]]. Moreover, there is no evidence that Han Chinese, who were considered people of the bottom of Yuan society by some research, were suffered a particularly cruel abuse.<ref>杉山正明《忽必烈的挑战》，社会科学文献出版社，2013年，第44-46頁</ref><ref>船田善之《色目人与元代制度、社会－－重新探讨蒙古、色目、汉人、南人划分的位置》,〈蒙古学信息〉2003年第2期</ref>
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| − | ==Chinese resistance in Vietnam against the Mongols==
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| − | The Chinese region of [[Fujian]] was the original home of the Chinese Tran (Chen) clan before they migrated under Trần Kinh (陳京, Chén Jīng) to Dai Viet and whose descendants established the [[Trần dynasty]] which ruled Vietnam (Đại Việt), and certain members of the clan could still speak Chinese such as when a [[Yuan dynasty]] envoy had a meeting with the Chinese-speaking Trần prince Trần Quốc Tuấn (later King [[Trần Hưng Đạo]]) in 1282.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Taylor|first1=K. W.|title=A history of the Vietnamese|date=2013|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0521699150|pages=103, 120|edition=1. publ.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6UHi9JXNokEC&pg=PA120&dq=tran+fujian&hl=en&sa=X&ei=XiPNVPrfH4WgNsWpgagC&ved=0CCQQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=tran%20fujian&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hall|first1=edited by Kenneth R.|title=Secondary cities and urban networking in the Indian Ocean Realm, c. 1400-1800|date=2008|publisher=Lexington Books|location=Lanham|isbn=978-0739128350|page=159|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gyPjBevBHxcC&pg=PA159&dq=tran+fujian&hl=en&sa=X&ei=XiPNVPrfH4WgNsWpgagC&ved=0CD8Q6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=tran%20fujian&f=false ed.}}</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZHD4Asj0FagC&pg=PT90&dq=Tran+Chen+Fujian&hl=en&sa=X&ei=9AzMVM66BIfbsAShsIDgCQ&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Tran%20Chen%20Fujian&f=false eds. Dutton & Werner & Whitmore 2013] [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZHD4Asj0FagC&pg=PT90&dq=tran+fujian&hl=en&sa=X&ei=di7NVJKXCovEggSwpYKgCQ&ved=0CEgQ6AEwCDg8#v=onepage&q=tran%20fujian&f=false .]</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=E10tnvapZt0C&pg=PA112&dq=tran+fujian&hl=en&sa=X&ei=XiPNVPrfH4WgNsWpgagC&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=tran%20fujian&f=false Gunn 2011], p. 112.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=cNwpAQAAMAAJ&q=tran+fujian&dq=tran+fujian&hl=en&sa=X&ei=1iPNVKSgKoS4ggTd6oDgCw&ved=0CCIQ6AEwATge Embree & Lewis 1988], [https://books.google.com/books?id=cNwpAQAAMAAJ&q=In+particular,+the+Tran+from+Fujian+in+South+China+had+built+up+their+power+in+the+southern+Red+River+delta+on+a+commercial+base+%28fishing%29.+Now+the+family+became+a+force+in+the+capital+by+intermarrying+with+the+Ly,+and+soon+it+took+the+throne+for+...&dq=In+particular,+the+Tran+from+Fujian+in+South+China+had+built+up+their+power+in+the+southern+Red+River+delta+on+a+commercial+base+%28fishing%29.+Now+the+family+became+a+force+in+the+capital+by+intermarrying+with+the+Ly,+and+soon+it+took+the+throne+for+...&hl=en&sa=X&ei=yCXNVP2-FcKPsQSTioCYCA&ved=0CB8Q6AEwAA p. 190.]</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=0LgSI9UQNpwC&pg=PA8&dq=tran+fukien&hl=en&sa=X&ei=Fi_NVITUN6XjsASAvoKoDg&ved=0CFwQ6AEwCQ#v=onepage&q=tran%20fukien&f=false Woodside 1971], p. 8.</ref>
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| − | Professor Liam Kelley noted that people from Song dynasty China like Zhao Zhong and Xu Zongdao fled to Tran dynasty ruled Vietnam after the Mongol invasion of the Song and they helped the Tran fight against the Mongol invasion. The Tran dynasty originated from the Fujian region of China as did the Daoist cleric Xu Zongdao who recorded the Mongol invasion and referred to them as "Northern bandits".<ref>https://leminhkhai.wordpress.com/2015/12/04/giac-bac-den-xam-luoc-translations-and-exclamation-points/</ref><ref name="proof that he runs the blog">[https://web.archive.org/web/20141014090118/http://manoa.hawaii.edu/history/node/44 proof that he runs the blog]</ref> The Tran defeated the [[Mongol invasions of Vietnam]].
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| − | == References ==
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| − | === Citations ===
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| − | {{Reflist|2}}
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| − | === Sources ===
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| − | * {{cite book |last = Grousset |first = René |title = The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia |year = 1970 |publisher = Rutgers University Press |ISBN = 978-0-8135-1304-1 |ref = harv}}
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| − | * {{cite journal |last = Smith, Jr. |first = John Masson |date = Jan–Mar 1998 |title = Review: Nomads on Ponies vs. Slaves on Horses |journal= Journal of the American Oriental Society |publisher = American Oriental Society |volume = 118 |issue = 1 |pages = 54–62 |doi = 10.2307/606298 |jstor = 606298 |deadurl= |archivedate= }}
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| − | {{Yuan dynasty topics}}
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| − | {{Mongol Empire}}
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| − | {{Use dmy dates|date=May 2011}}
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| − | [[Category:Wars involving the Mongols]]
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| − | [[Category:Wars involving China]]
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| − | [[Category:Song dynasty]]
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| − | [[Category:Wars involving the Yuan dynasty]]
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| − | [[Category:Invasions by the Mongol Empire]]
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| − | [[Category:Wars of the Song dynasty]]
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| − | [[Category:13th century in China]]
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| − | [[Category:13th century in the Mongol Empire]]
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| − | [[Category:Kublai Khan]]
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