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Şablon:Islam Islam (Şablon:IPAc-en;<ref group=note>There are ten pronunciations of Islam in English, differing in whether the first or second syllable has the stress, whether the s is Şablon:IPAslink or Şablon:IPAslink, and whether the a is pronounced Şablon:IPAslink, Şablon:IPAslink or (when the stress is on the first syllable) Şablon:IPAslink (Merriam Webster). The most common are Şablon:IPAc-en (Oxford English Dictionary, Random House) and Şablon:IPAc-en (American Heritage Dictionary).</ref> Şablon:Lang-ar, Şablon:IPA-ar) is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion which professes that there is only one and incomparable God (Allah)<ref>quran.com: [1]</ref> and that Muhammad is the last messenger of God.<ref name="StrongWilder2013">Şablon:Cite book</ref><ref name="Renard2015">Şablon:Cite book</ref><ref name="Daughrity2010">Şablon:Cite book</ref><ref name="Wunderle2008">Şablon:Cite book</ref><ref name="KoenigShohaib2014">Şablon:Cite book</ref> It is the world's second-largest religion<ref name=landscape>Şablon:Cite web</ref> and the fastest-growing major religion in the world,<ref>Şablon:Cite news</ref><ref name=Lippman>Şablon:Cite web</ref><ref>PBS - Islam: Empire of Faith - Faith - Islam Today.</ref> with over 1.7 billion followers<ref name="gordonconwell.edu">Şablon:Cite web</ref> or 23% of the global population,<ref name=landscape/> known as Muslims.<ref>According to Oxford Dictionaries, "Muslim is the preferred term for 'follower of Islam,' although Moslem is also widely used."</ref> Islam teaches that God is merciful, all-powerful, and unique;<ref>Şablon:Cite encyclopedia</ref> and He has guided mankind through revealed scriptures, natural signs, and a line of prophets sealed by Muhammad. The primary scriptures of Islam are the Quran, viewed by Muslims as the verbatim word of God, and the teachings and normative example (called the sunnah, composed of accounts called hadith) of Muhammad ([[Circa|Şablon:Circa]] 570–8 June 632 CE).

Muslims believe that Islam is the original, complete and universal version of a primordial faith that was revealed many times before through prophets including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, and Jesus.<ref name="People-of-the-Book">Şablon:Cite web</ref><ref>Reeves, J. C. (2004). Bible and Qurʼān: Essays in scriptural intertextuality. Leiden [u.a.: Brill. Page 177</ref><ref>http://www.cnn.com/2015/10/21/living/yom-kippur-muslims/index.html, retrieved 10-1-2016</ref> As for the Quran, Muslims consider it to be the unaltered and final revelation of God.<ref>Şablon:Harvtxt</ref> Religious concepts and practices include the five pillars of Islam, which are obligatory acts of worship, and following Islamic law, which touches on virtually every aspect of life and society, from banking and welfare to women and the environment.<ref>Şablon:Harvtxt</ref><ref>* Şablon:Harvtxt

</ref> Certain religious rites and customs are observed by the Muslims in their family and social life, while social responsibilities to parents, relatives, and neighbors have also been defined. Besides, the Quran and the sunnah of Muhammad prescribe a comprehensive body of moral guidelines for Muslims to be followed in their personal, social, political, and religious life.

Islam began in the early 7th century. Originating in Mecca,<ref>Şablon:Cite book</ref> it quickly spread in the Arabian Peninsula and by the 8th century the Islamic empire was extended from Iberia in the west to the Indus River in the east. The Islamic Golden Age refers to the period traditionally dated from the 8th century to the 13th century when much of the historically Islamic world was experiencing a scientific, economic and cultural flourishing.<ref name=Saliba>George Saliba (1994), A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam, pp. 245, 250, 256–7. New York University Press, ISBN 0-8147-8023-7.</ref><ref name=King>Şablon:Cite journal</ref><ref name=Hassan-Decline>Şablon:Cite encyclopedia</ref> The expansion of the Muslim world involved various caliphates and empires, traders and conversion to Islam by missionary activities.<ref>The preaching of Islam: a history of the propagation of the Muslim faith By Sir Thomas Walker Arnold, pg.125-258</ref>

Most Muslims are of one of two denominations:<ref name="NYT-20160103">Şablon:Cite news</ref><ref name="NYT-20160105-maps">Şablon:Cite news</ref> Sunni (75–90%)<ref name="Sunni-eb" /> or Shia (10–20%).<ref name="Shia" /> Islam is the dominant religion in the Middle East, North Africa, the Sahel,<ref name="pewmuslim12">Şablon:Cite web</ref><ref name="pewmuslim22">Şablon:Cite web</ref><ref name="pewmuslim32">Şablon:Cite web</ref><ref>Encyclopædia Britannica. Britannica Book of the Year 2003. Encyclopædia Britannica, (2003) ISBN 978-0-85229-956-2 p.306 According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, as of mid-2002, there were 376,453,000 Christians, 329,869,000 Muslims and 98,734,000 people who practiced traditional religions in Africa. Ian S. Markham, (A World Religions Reader. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 1996.) is cited by Morehouse University as giving the mid-1990s figure of 278,250,800 Muslims in Africa, but still as 40.8% of the total population. These numbers are estimates, and remain a matter of conjecture. See Amadu Jacky Kaba. The spread of Christianity and Islam in Africa: a survey and analysis of the numbers and percentages of Christians, Muslims and those who practice indigenous religions. The Western Journal of Black Studies, Vol 29, Number 2, June 2005. Discusses the estimations of various almanacs and encyclopedium, placing Britannica's estimate as the most agreed figure. Notes the figure presented at the World Christian Encyclopedia, summarized here, as being an outlier. On rates of growth, Islam and Pentecostal Christianity are highest, see: The List: The World’s Fastest-Growing Religions, Foreign Policy, May 2007. </ref> Central Asia and some other parts of Asia.<ref>Britannica, Think Quest, Wadsworth.com Şablon:Webarchive</ref> About 13% of Muslims live in Indonesia,<ref name="Miller 2009, pp.8,17">Şablon:Harvtxt</ref> the largest Muslim-majority country, 31% in South Asia,<ref>Şablon:Cite book</ref><ref>Şablon:Cite web</ref> the largest population of Muslims in the world,<ref>Şablon:Cite news</ref> 23% in the Middle East-North Africa (MENA),<ref>Şablon:Cite web</ref> and 15% in Sub-Saharan Africa.<ref name="mgmpPRC" /> Sizable Muslim communities are also found in Horn of Africa, Europe, China, Russia, and the Americas. Converts and immigrant communities are found in almost every part of the world.

Etymology and meaning

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The Kaaba in Mecca is the direction of prayer and destination of pilgrimage for Muslims

Islam is a verbal noun originating from the triliteral root s-l-m which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of wholeness, submission, safeness and peace.<ref>Dictionary listing for Siin roots derived from Lane's Arabic-English Lexicon via www.studyquran.co.uk</ref> In a religious context it means "voluntary submission to God".<ref>Şablon:Cite book</ref><ref>Şablon:Cite web</ref> Islām is the verbal noun of Form IV of the root, and means "submission" or "surrender". Muslim, the word for an adherent of Islam, is the active participle of the same verb form, and means "one who submits" or "one who surrenders". The word sometimes has distinct connotations in its various occurrences in the Quran. In some verses, there is stress on the quality of Islam as an internal state: "Whomsoever God desires to guide, He opens his heart to Islam."<ref name="MULTIPLE-REFERENCES">

</ref> Other verses connect Islām and dīn (usually translated as "religion"): "Today, I have perfected your religion (dīn) for you; I have completed My blessing upon you; I have approved Islam for your religion."<ref>Şablon:Cite quran, Şablon:Cite quran, Şablon:Cite quran</ref> Still others describe Islam as an action of returning to God—more than just a verbal affirmation of faith.<ref>

Islam was historically called Muhammadanism in Anglophone societies. This term has fallen out of use and is sometimes said to be offensive because it suggests that a human being rather than God is central to Muslims' religion, parallel to Jesus Christ in Christianity. Some authors, however, continue to use the term Muhammadanism as a technical term for the religious system as opposed to the theological concept of Islam that exists within that system.<ref>Kenneth G. Wilson, The Columbia Guide to Standard American English (ISBN 0231069898), page 291: Muhammadan and Mohammedan are based on the name of the prophet Mohammed, and both are considered offensive.</ref>

Articles of faith

Şablon:Main article Faith (Iman) in the Islamic creed (Aqidah) is often represented as the six articles of faith, notably spelled out in the Hadith of Gabriel.

Concept of God

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Medallion showing the word "Allah" (God) in Hagia Sophia, Istanbul, Turkey.

Şablon:Main article

Islam is often seen as having the simplest doctrines of the major religions.<ref name=Lippman/> Its most fundamental concept is a rigorous monotheism, called tawḥīd (Şablon:Lang-ar). God is described in chapter 112 of the Quran as: "Say, He is God, the One and Only; God, the Eternal, Absolute; He begetteth not, nor is He begotten; And there is none like unto Him" (Şablon:Cite quran).<ref> 

By Fateh Ullah Khan Page 298 [2]</ref><ref>Şablon:Cite book</ref><ref>Şablon:Cite book</ref><ref>Şablon:Cite book</ref> God is described and referred to by certain names or attributes, the most common being Al-Rahmān, meaning "The Compassionate" and Al-Rahīm, meaning "The Merciful" (See Names of God in Islam).<ref name="Ben">Şablon:Cite book</ref>

Muslims believe that the creation of everything in the universe was brought into being by God's sheer command, "'Be' and so it is,"<ref>

</ref> and that the purpose of existence is to worship God.<ref>

</ref> He is viewed as a personal god who responds whenever a person in need or distress calls him.<ref>

</ref> There are no intermediaries, such as clergy, to contact God who states, "I am nearer to him than (his) jugular vein."<ref>Şablon:Cite quran</ref> God consciousness is referred to as Taqwa.

Allāh is the term with no plural or gender used by Muslims and Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews to reference God, while Şablon:Transl (Şablon:Lang-ar) is the term used for a deity or a god in general.<ref>

</ref> Other non-Arab Muslims might use different names as much as Allah, for instance "Tanrı" in Turkish, "Khodā" in Persian or Şablon:Transl in Urdu.

Angels

Şablon:Main article

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Islamic calligraphy of the Archangel Israfil (reflects upon how angels are most commonly represented in Islam).

Belief in angels is fundamental to the faith of Islam. The Arabic word for angel (Şablon:Lang-ar Şablon:Transl) means "messenger", like its counterparts in Hebrew (malʾákh) and Greek (angelos). According to the Quran, angels do not possess free will, and therefore worship and obey God in total obedience. Angels' duties include communicating revelations from God, glorifying God, recording every person's actions, and taking a person's soul at the time of death. Muslims believe that angels are made of light. They are described as "messengers with wings—two, or three, or four (pairs): He [God] adds to Creation as He pleases..."<ref>

</ref> Some scholars have emphasized a metaphorical reinterpretation of the concept of angels.<ref>Şablon:Cite book</ref> Pictorial depictions of angels are generally avoided in Islamic Art, as the idea of giving form to anything immaterial is not accepted.<ref name="Baksh2007">Şablon:Cite book</ref> Muslims therefore do not generally share the perceptions of angelic pictorial depictions, such as those found in Western Art.

Additionally, another kind of being that is sapient in Islam is called Jinn, who are believed to be invisible to humans, including the Satans.

Revelations

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The first chapter of the Quran, Al-Fatiha, consisting of seven verses.

Şablon:Main article Şablon:See also

The Islamic holy books are the records which most Muslims believe were dictated by God to various prophets. Muslims believe that parts of the previously revealed scriptures, the Tawrat (Torah) and the Injil (Gospels), had become distorted—either in interpretation, in text, or both.<ref name="Distorted">

</ref> The Quran (literally, "Reading" or "Recitation") is viewed by Muslims as the final revelation and literal word of God and is widely regarded as the finest literary work in the Arabic language.<ref>Chejne, A. (1969) The Arabic Language: Its Role in History, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis.</ref><ref>Speicher, K. (1997) in: Edzard, L., and Szyska, C. (eds.) Encounters of Words and Texts: Intercultural Studies in Honor of Stefan Wild. Georg Olms, Hildesheim, pp. 43–66.</ref>

Muslims believe that the verses of the Quran were revealed to Muhammad by God through the archangel Gabriel (Jibrīl) on many occasions between 610 CE until his death on June 8, 632.<ref>Şablon:Harvtxt</ref> While Muhammad was alive, all of these revelations were written down by his companions (sahabah), although the prime method of transmission was orally through memorization.<ref name="al faruqi">Şablon:Cite journal</ref>

The Quran is divided into 114 suras, or chapters, which combined, contain 6,236 āyāt, or verses. The chronologically earlier suras, revealed at Mecca, are primarily concerned with ethical and spiritual topics. The later Medinan suras mostly discuss social and moral issues relevant to the Muslim community.<ref>

</ref>

The Quran is more concerned with moral guidance than legal instruction, and is considered the "sourcebook of Islamic principles and values".<ref>Şablon:Harvtxt</ref> Muslim jurists consult the hadith ("reports"), or the written record of Prophet Muhammad's life, to both supplement the Quran and assist with its interpretation. The science of Quranic commentary and exegesis is known as tafsir.<ref>

</ref> The set of rules governing proper pronunciation is called tajwid.

Muslims usually view "the Quran" as the original scripture as revealed in Arabic and that any translations are necessarily deficient, which are regarded only as commentaries on the Quran.<ref>

</ref>

Prophets and sunnah

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The Arabic word for prophets preceded by the honorific "peace be upon them".

Şablon:Main article

Muslims identify the prophets of Islam (Şablon:Lang-ar Şablon:Transl ) as those humans chosen by God to be his messengers. According to the Quran, the prophets were instructed by God to bring the "will of God" to the peoples of the nations. Muslims believe that prophets are human and not divine, though some are able to perform miracles to prove their claim. Islamic theology says that all of God's messengers preached the message of Islam—submission to the will of God. The Quran mentions the names of numerous figures considered prophets in Islam, including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses and Jesus, among others.<ref>

</ref>

Muslims believe that God finally sent Muhammad as the last law bearing prophet (Seal of the Prophets) to convey the divine message to the whole world (to sum up and to finalize the word of God). In Islam, the "normative" example of Muhammad's life is called the Sunnah (literally "trodden path"). Muslims are encouraged to emulate Muhammad's actions in their daily lives and the Sunnah is seen as crucial to guiding interpretation of the Quran.<ref>* Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World (2003), p.666* Şablon:Cite encyclopedia* Şablon:Cite encyclopedia</ref> This example is preserved in traditions known as hadith, which recount his words, his actions, and his personal characteristics. Hadith Qudsi is a sub-category of hadith, regarded as verbatim words of God quoted by Muhammad but is not part of the Quran.

A hadith involves two elements- a chain of narrators, called sanad, and the actual wording, called matn. Hadiths can be classified, by studying the narration, as "authentic" or "correct", called Sahih (Şablon:Lang-ar), "good", called Ḥasan (Şablon:Lang-ar) or "weak", called Ḍaʻīf (Şablon:Lang-ar) among others. Muhammad al-Bukhari<ref name="sahih-bukhari.com">Read, Study, Search Online. Sahih Bukhari. Retrieved on 2013-07-28.</ref> collected over 300,000 hadith, but only included 2,602 distinct hadith that passed the tests that codified them as authentic into his book Sahih al-Bukhari,<ref name="sahih-bukhari.com"/> which is considered by many to be the most authentic source after the Quran.<ref>The Canonization of Al-Bukhari and Muslim: The Formation and Function of the Sunni Hadith Canon by Jonathan Brown, BRILL, 2007</ref><ref name="Muqaddimah">Muqaddimah Ibn al-Salah, pg. 160-9 Dar al-Ma'aarif edition</ref>

Resurrection and judgment

Şablon:Main article

Belief in the "Day of Resurrection", Yawm al-Qiyāmah (Şablon:Lang-ar) is also crucial for Muslims. They believe the time of Qiyāmah is preordained by God but unknown to man. The trials and tribulations preceding and during the Qiyāmah are described in the Quran and the hadith, and also in the commentaries of scholars. The Quran emphasizes bodily resurrection, a break from the pre-Islamic Arabian understanding of death.<ref>

</ref>

On Yawm al-Qiyāmah, Muslims believe all mankind will be judged on their good and bad deeds and consigned to Jannah (paradise) or Jahannam (hell). The Qurʼan in Surat al-Zalzalah describes this as, "So whoever does an atom's weight of good will see it (99:7) and whoever does an atom's weight of evil will see it (99:8)." The Qurʼan lists several sins that can condemn a person to hell, such as disbelief in God (Şablon:Lang-ar Şablon:Transl), and dishonesty; however, the Qurʼan makes it clear God will forgive the sins of those who repent if he so wills. Good deeds, such as charity, prayer and compassion towards animals,<ref>Animals in Islam By Basheer Ahmad Masri Page 27</ref><ref>What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam:Second Edition: Second Edition By John L. Esposito Page 130</ref> will be rewarded with entry to heaven. Muslims view heaven as a place of joy and bliss, with Qurʼanic references describing its features and the physical pleasures to come. Mystical traditions in Islam place these heavenly delights in the context of an ecstatic awareness of God.<ref>

</ref>

Yawm al-Qiyāmah is also identified in the Quran as Yawm ad-Dīn (Şablon:Lang-ar), "Day of Religion";<ref>Şablon:Cite quran</ref> as-sāʿah (Şablon:Lang-ar), "the Last Hour";<ref>Şablon:Cite quran</ref> and al-Qāriʿah (Şablon:Lang-ar), "The Clatterer".<ref>Şablon:Cite quran</ref>

Divine will

Şablon:Main article The concept of divine will is referred to as al-qadā wa'l-qadar (Şablon:Lang-ar), which literally derives from a root that means to measure. Everything, good and bad, is believed to have been decreed.<ref>*Şablon:Harvtxt: "The idea of predestination is reinforced by the frequent mention of events 'being written' or 'being in a book' before they happen: 'Say: "Nothing will happen to us except what Allah has decreed for us..." ' "* Şablon:Cite encyclopedia: The verb qadara literally means "to measure, to determine". Here it is used to mean that "God measures and orders his creation".</ref>

Acts of worship

Şablon:See also There are five basic religious acts in Islam, collectively known as 'The Pillars of Islam' (arkan al-Islam; also arkan ad-din, "pillars of religion"), which are considered obligatory for all believers. The Quran presents them as a framework for worship and a sign of commitment to the faith. They are (1) the creed (shahadah), (2) daily prayers (salat), (3) almsgiving (zakah), (4) fasting during Ramadan, and (5) the pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj) at least once in a lifetime.<ref>Şablon:Cite web</ref> Both Shia and Sunni sects agree on the essential details for the performance of these acts.<ref>Pillars of Islam, Oxford Islamic Studies Online</ref> Apart from these, Muslims also perform other religious acts. Notable among them are charity (Sadaqah) and recitation of the Quran.

Testimony

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Silver coin of the Mughal Emperor Akbar with inscriptions of the Islamic declaration of faith

Şablon:Main article

The Shahadah,<ref>Hossein Nasr The Heart of Islam, Enduring Values for Humanity (April., 2003), pp 3, 39, 85, 27–272 </ref> which is the basic creed of Islam that must be recited under oath with the specific statement: "Şablon:Transl", or "I testify that there is no god but God, Muhammad is the messenger of God."<ref>N Mohammad (1985), The doctrine of jihad: An introduction, Journal of Law and Religion, 3(2): 381-397</ref> This testament is a foundation for all other beliefs and practices in Islam. Muslims must repeat the shahadah in prayer, and non-Muslims wishing to convert to Islam are required to recite the creed.<ref>

  • Farah (1994), p.135
  • Momen (1987), p.178
  • "Islam", Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals (2004)

</ref>

Prayer

Şablon:Main article Şablon:See also

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Muslim men prostrating during prayer in the Umayyad Mosque, Damascus.

Ritual prayers are called Ṣalāh or Ṣalāt (Arabic: صلاة). Salat is intended to focus the mind on God, and is seen as a personal communication with him that expresses gratitude and worship. Performing prayers five times a day is compulsory but flexibility in the specifics is allowed depending on circumstances. The prayers are recited in the Arabic language, and consist of verses from the Quran.<ref>

</ref> The prayers are done with the chest in direction of the kaaba though in the early days of Islam, they were done in direction of Jerusalem. The act of supplicating is referred to as dua.

A mosque is a place of worship for Muslims, who often refer to it by its Arabic name masjid. A large mosque for gathering for Friday prayers or Eid prayers are called masjid jāmi.<ref>Şablon:Cite book</ref> Although the primary purpose of the mosque is to serve as a place of prayer, it is also important to the Muslim community as a place to meet and study. In Medina, Al-Masjid al-Nabawi, or the Prophet's Mosque, was also a place of refuge for the poor.<ref>Encyclopedia of Women and Religion in North America: edited by Rosemary Skinner Keller, Rosemary Radford Ruether, Marie Cantlon Page 615 [3]</ref> Modern mosques have evolved greatly from the early designs of the 7th century, and contain a variety of architectural elements such as minarets.<ref>

</ref>

Charity

Şablon:Main article

"Zakāt" (Şablon:Lang-ar Şablon:Transl "alms") is giving a fixed portion of accumulated wealth by those who can afford it to help the poor or needy and for those employed to collect Zakat; also, for bringing hearts together, freeing captives, for those in debt (or bonded labour) and for the (stranded) traveller.<ref>Qurʼan, Surat al-Tawbah 9:60 "Zakat expenditures are only for the poor and for the needy and for those employed to collect (Zakat) and for bringing hearts together and for freeing captives and for those in debt (or bonded labour) and for the cause of Allah and for the (stranded) traveller - an obligation (imposed) by Allah . And Allah is Knowing and Wise."</ref><ref>The Islamic Voluntary Sector in Southeast Asia edited by K. A. Mohamed Ariff [4]</ref> It is considered a religious obligation (as opposed to voluntary charity) that the well-off owe to the needy because their wealth is seen as a "trust from God's bounty". Conservative estimates of annual zakat is estimated to be 15 times global humanitarian aid contributions.<ref>Şablon:Cite news</ref> The amount of zakat to be paid on capital assets (e.g. money) is 2.5% (1/40) per year,<ref name="AhmedGianci">Medani Ahmed and Sebastian Gianci, Zakat, Encyclopedia of Taxation and Tax Policy, p. 479</ref> for people who are not poor.

Sadaqah means optional charity which is practiced as religious duty and out of generosity.<ref>Şablon:Cite book</ref> Both the Quran and the hadith have put much emphasis on spending money for the welfare of needy people,<ref>Şablon:Cite book</ref> and have urged the Muslims to give more as an act of optional charity.<ref>

</ref> The Quran says: Spend something (in charity) out of the substance which We have bestowed on you, before Death should come to any of you (Şablon:Cite quran). One of the early teachings of Muhammad was that God expects men to be generous with their wealth and not to be miserly (Quran Şablon:Cite quran).<ref>Şablon:Cite book</ref> Accumulating wealth without spending them to address the needs of the poor is generally prohibited and admonished.<ref>Şablon:Cite book</ref> Another kind of charity in Islam is waqf which means perpetual religious endowment.

Fasting

Şablon:Main article Şablon:Further information

Fasting (Şablon:Lang-ar Şablon:Transl) from food and drink, among other things, must be performed from dawn to dusk during the month of Ramadan. The fast is to encourage a feeling of nearness to God, and during it Muslims should express their gratitude for and dependence on him, atone for their past sins, and think of the needy. Sawm is not obligatory for several groups for whom it would constitute an undue burden. For others, flexibility is allowed depending on circumstances, but missed fasts usually must be made up quickly.<ref>

</ref>

Pilgrimage

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Pilgrims at the Masjid al-Haram in Mecca during Hajj

Şablon:Main article

The obligatory Islamic pilgrimage, called the Şablon:Transl (Şablon:Lang-ar), has to be performed during the Islamic month of Dhu al-Hijjah in the city of Mecca. Every able-bodied Muslim who can afford it must make the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in his or her lifetime. Rituals of the Hajj include: spending a day and a night in the tents in the desert plain of Mina, then a day in the desert plain of Arafat praying and worshiping God, following the foot steps of Abraham; then spending a night out in the open, sleeping on the desert sand in the desert plain of Muzdalifah; then moving to Jamarat, symbolically stoning the Devil recounting Abraham's actions;<ref>Şablon:Cite book</ref><ref>Şablon:Cite book</ref><ref>Islam and the Glorious Ka'abah: None By Sayed M Alhuseini, Farouq M. Alhuseini Page 61 [5]</ref> then going to Mecca and walking seven times around the Kaaba which Muslims believe was built as a place of worship by Abraham; then walking seven times between Mount Safa and Mount Marwah recounting the steps of Abraham's wife, while she was looking for water for her son Ismael in the desert before Mecca developed into a settlement.<ref>

</ref> Another form of pilgrimage, Umrah, can be undertaken at any time of the year.

Recitation and memorization of the Quran

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Men reading the Quran in a mosque

Muslims recite and memorize the whole or the part of the Quran as acts of virtue. Reciting the Quran in the correct manner has been described as an excellent act of worship.<ref name=Nigosian-70>Şablon:Cite book</ref> Pious Muslims recite the whole Quran at the month of Ramadan.<ref name=Stefon-42>Şablon:Cite book</ref> In Islamic societies, any social program generally begins with the recitation of the Quran.<ref name=Stefon-42/> Those who memorize the whole Quran is called hafiz who, it is said, will be able to intercede for ten people on the Last Judgment Day.<ref name=Nigosian-70/> Apart from this, almost every Muslim memorizes some portion of the Quran because they need to recite it during regular prayer. Şablon:Clear

Society

Family life

Şablon:See also

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The dome of the Carol I Mosque in Constanța, Romania, topped by the Islamic crescent

For Muslim communities, family is the basic component of society, and is responsible for the wellbeing of its members. In a Muslim family, the birth of a child is attended with some religious ceremonies. Immediately after the birth, the words of Adhan is pronounced in the right ear of the child. In the seventh day, the aquiqa ceremony is performed in which an animal is sacrificed and its meat is distributed among the poor.<ref name=Nigosian-120>Şablon:Cite book</ref> The head of the child is also shaved, and an amount of money equaling the weight of the child's hair is donated to the poor.<ref name=Nigosian-120/> Apart from fulfilling the basic needs of food, shelter, and education, the parents or the elderly members of family also undertake the task of teaching moral qualities, religious knowledge, and religious practices to the children.<ref name=Campo-136>Şablon:Cite encyclopedia</ref> Marriage, which serves as the foundation of a Muslim family, is a civil contract which consists of an offer and acceptance between two qualified parties in the presence of two witnesses. The groom is required to pay a bridal gift (mahr) to the bride, as stipulated in the contract.<ref>

Most families in the Islamic world are monogamous.<ref>Şablon:Cite book</ref><ref>Şablon:Cite book</ref> Polyandry, a form of polygamy, where a woman takes on two or more husbands is prohibited in Islam.<ref>Şablon:Cite web</ref> With Muslims coming from diverse backgrounds including 49 Muslim-majority countries, plus a strong presence as large minorities throughout the world there are many variations on Muslim Weddings. Generally in a Muslim family, a woman's sphere of operation is the home and a man's corresponding sphere is the outside world. However, in practice, this separation is not as rigid as it appears.<ref>Şablon:Cite book</ref>

Certain religious rites are performed during and after the death of a Muslim. Those near a dying man encourage him to pronounce the Shahada as Muslims want their last word to be their profession of faith. After the death, the body is bathed properly by the members of the same gender and then enshrouded in a threefold white garment called kafan.<ref>Şablon:Cite book</ref> Placing the body on a bier, it is first taken to a mosque where funeral prayer is offered for the dead person, and then to the graveyard for burial.

Etiquette and diet

Şablon:Main article

Many practices fall in the category of adab, or Islamic etiquette. This includes greeting others with "as-salamu `alaykum" ("peace be unto you"), saying bismillah ("in the name of God") before meals, and using only the right hand for eating and drinking. Islamic hygienic practices mainly fall into the category of personal cleanliness and health. Circumcision of male offspring is also practiced in Islam. Islamic burial rituals include saying the Salat al-Janazah ("funeral prayer") over the bathed and enshrouded dead body, and burying it in a grave. Muslims are restricted in their diet. Prohibited foods include pork products, blood, carrion, and alcohol. All meat must come from a herbivorous animal slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian, with the exception of game that one has hunted or fished for oneself. Food permissible for Muslims is known as halal food.<ref>

</ref>

Social responsibilities

Şablon:Main article In a Muslim society, various social service activities are performed by the members of the community. As these activities are instructed by Islamic canonical texts, a Muslim's religious life is seen incomplete if not attended by service to humanity.<ref name=Stefon92>Şablon:Cite book</ref> In fact, In Islamic tradition, the idea of social welfare has been presented as one of its principal values.<ref name=Stefon92/> The Şablon:Cite quran verse of the Quran is often cited to encapsulate the Islamic idea of social welfare.<ref>Şablon:Cite book</ref><ref group=note>The verse reads: 'It is not righteousness that ye turn your faces towards East or West; but it is righteousness to believe in Allah and the Last Day, and the Angels, and the Book and the Messengers; to spend of your substance, out of love for Him, for your kin, for orphans, for the needy, for the wayfarer, for those who ask, and for the ransom of slaves; to be steadfast in prayer, and practice regular charity, to fulfill the contracts which we have made; and to be firm and patient, in pain (or suffering) and adversity, and throughout all periods of panic. Such are the people of truth, the God fearing'</ref> Similarly, duties to parents, neighbors, relatives, sick people, the old, and the minority have been defined in Islam. Respecting and obeying one's parents, and taking care of them especially in their old age have been made a religious obligation.<ref name=Campo-136/><ref>Muhammad Shafi Usmani. Maariful Quran. English trans. By Muhammad Taqi Usmani</ref> A two-fold approach is generally prescribed with regard to the duties to the relatives: keeping rood relation with them, and offering financial help if necessary.<ref>Şablon:Cite book</ref> Severing ties with them has been admonished. Regardless of a neighbor's religious identity, Islam tells the Muslims to treat their neighboring people in the best possible manners and not to cause any difficulty to them.<ref>Şablon:Cite book</ref><ref>Şablon:Cite book</ref> About the orphaned children, the Quran forbids harsh and oppressive treatment to them while urging kindness and justice towards them. It also rebukes those who do not honor and feed the orphaned children (Quran Şablon:Cite quran).

Moral behavior

Şablon:Main article The Quran and the sunnah of Muhammad prescribe a comprehensive body of moral guidelines for Muslims to be followed in their personal, social, political, and religious life. Proper moral conduct, good deeds, righteousness, and good character come within the sphere of the moral guidelines.<ref name=Campo-216>Şablon:Cite encyclopedia</ref> In Islam, the observance of moral virtues is always associated with religious significance because it elevates the religious status of a believer<ref name=Nigosian-116>Şablon:Cite book</ref> and is often seen as a supererogatory act of worshipping.<ref name=Leaman-140>Şablon:Cite encyclopedia</ref> One typical Islamic teaching on morality is that imposing a penalty on an offender in proportion to their offense is permissible and just; but forgiving the offender is better. To go one step further by offering a favor to the offender is regarded the highest excellence.<ref name=Nigosian-116/> The Quran says: 'Repel (evil) with what is best' (Şablon:Cite quran). Thus, a Muslim is expected to act only in good manners as bad manners and deeds earn vices.<ref name=Campo-215>Şablon:Cite encyclopedia</ref> The fundamental moral qualities in Islam are justice, forgiveness, righteousness, kindness, honesty, and piety.<ref name=Campo-216/> Other mostly insisted moral virtues include but not limited to charitable activities, tolerance, fulfillment of promise, modesty and humility, decency in speech, trustworthiness, patience, truthfulness, anger management, and sincerity of intention.

As a religion, Islam emphasizes the idea of having a good character as Muhammad said: 'The best among you are those who have the best manners and character' (Şablon:Hadith-usc). In Islam, justice is not only a moral virtue but also an obligation to be fulfilled under all circumstances.<ref>Şablon:Cite book</ref> The Quran and the hadith describe God as being kind and merciful to His creatures, and tell people to be kind likewise. As a virtue, forgiveness is much celebrated in Islam, and is regarded as an important Muslim practice.<ref name=Leaman-27>Şablon:Cite encyclopedia</ref> About modesty, Muhammad is reported as saying: ' Every religion has its characteristic, and the characteristic of Islam is modesty'.<ref name=modesty-1>Imam Kamil Mufti (2006). Modesty: An Overview. IslamReligion.com Retrieved 19 Aug 2016.</ref>

Government

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Mainstream Islamic law does not distinguish between "matters of church" and "matters of state"; the scholars function as both jurists and theologians. Currently no government conforms to Islamic economic jurisprudence, but steps have been taken to implement some of its tenets.<ref>Islamic Identity and the Struggle for Justice edited by Nimat Hafez Barazangi, M. Raquibuz Zaman, Omar Afzal Page 5 [6]</ref><ref>Şablon:Cite book</ref><ref>Iran: A Country Study: A Country Study edited by Glenn E. Curtis, Eric Hooglund Page 196 [7]</ref>

Law and jurisprudence

Şablon:Fiqh Şablon:Main article The Shariʻah (literally "the path leading to the watering place") is Islamic law and constitutes a system of duties that are incumbent upon a Muslim by virtue of his or her religious belief.<ref name="BritannicaShariah">Şablon:Cite encyclopedia</ref> The study of Islamic law is called Fiqh, or "Islamic jurisprudence". The methods of jurisprudence used are known as usul al-fiqh ("legal theory", or "principles of jurisprudence"). Much of it has evolved with the objective to prevent innovation or alteration in the original religion, known as bid‘ah. Four fundamental evidence, codified by ash-Shafi'i, used are, in order of precedence: the Quran, the Hadith (the practice of Muhammad), the consensus of the Muslim jurists (ijma), and analogical reasoning (qiyas). Rulings over actions can be categorized as those that are obligatory (fardh) recommendanded (mustahabb), permissible (mubah), not recommended (makrooh) and prohibited (haraam).

The Quran set the rights, the responsibilities and the rules for people and for societies to adhere to. Muhammad provided an example, which is recorded in the hadith books, showing how he practically implemented those rules in a society.

Many of the Sharia laws that differ are devised through Ijtihad where there is no such ruling in the Quran or the Hadiths of Islamic prophet Muhammad regarding a similar case.<ref>Şablon:Cite book</ref><ref>Islamic State Practices, International Law And The Threat From Terrorism By Javaid Rehman Page 20 [8]</ref> As Muhammad's companions went to new areas,<ref>Muwatta Imam Malik, translated by professor Mohammad Rabimuddin. ISBN 81-7151-097-3 published by Nusrat Ali Nasri for Kitab Bhavan in New Delhi-110002 India, Page iv</ref> they were pragmatic and in some cases continued to use the same ruling as was given in that area during pre-Islamic times. If the population felt comfortable with it, it was just and they used Ijtihad to deduce that it did not conflict with the Quran or the Hadith. This made it easier for the different communities to integrate into the Islamic State and that assisted in the quick expansion of the Islamic State.

Islamic law covers all aspects of life, from matters of state, like governance and foreign relations, to issues of daily living. The Quran defines hudud as the punishments for five specific crimes: unlawful intercourse, false accusation of unlawful intercourse, consumption of alcohol, theft, and highway robbery. The Quran and Sunnah also contain laws of inheritance, marriage, and restitution for injuries and murder, as well as rules for fasting, charity, and prayer. For example, the division of inheritance is specified in the Quran, which states that most of it is to pass to the immediate family, while a portion is set aside for the payment of debts and the making of bequests. The woman's share of inheritance is generally half of that of a man with the same rights of succession.<ref>"al-Mar'a". Encyclopaedia of Islam</ref>

Scholars

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Imam teaches the Quran in Crimea, (1850s, lithograph by Carlo Bossoli)

Islam, like Judaism, has no clergy in the sacerdotal sense, such as priests who mediate between God and people. However, there are many terms in Islam to refer to religiously sanctioned positions of Islam. In the broadest sense, the term ulema (Şablon:Lang-ar) is used to describe the body of Muslim scholars who have completed several years of training and study of Islamic sciences. A jurist who interprets Islamic law is called a mufti (Şablon:Lang-ar) and often issues judicial opinions, called fatwas. A scholar of jurisprudence is called a faqih (Şablon:Lang-ar). Someone who studies the science of hadith is called a muhaddith. A qadi is a judge in an Islamic court. Honorific titles given to scholars include shiekh, mullah and maulvi. Imam (Şablon:Lang-ar) is a leadership position, often used in the context of conducting Islamic worship services.

Schools of jurisprudence

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Şablon:Main article A school of jurisprudence is referred to as a madhab (Şablon:Lang-ar). The four major Sunni schools are the Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, Hanbali and sometimes Ẓāhirī while the two major Shia schools are Ja'fari and Zaidi. Each differ in their methodology, called Usul al-fiqh. The following of decisions by a religious expert without necessarily examining the decision's reasoning is called taqlid. The term ghair muqallid literally refers to those who do not use taqlid and by extension do not have a madhab.<ref>Encyclopedeia of Eminent Thinkers - Page 38, K. S. Bharathi - 1998</ref> The practice of an individual interpretating law with independent reasoning is called ijtihad.<ref>Şablon:Harvtxt</ref>

Economics

Şablon:Main article

To reduce the gap between the rich and the poor, Islamic economic jurisprudence encourages trade,<ref>

  • International Business Success in a Strange Cultural Environment By Mamarinta P. Mababaya Page 203
  • Şablon:Cite quran

</ref> discourages the hoarding of wealth and outlaws interest-bearing loans (usury; the term is riba in Arabic).<ref>Şablon:Cite book</ref><ref>Financial Regulation in Crisis?: The Role of Law and the Failure of Northern Rock By Joanna Gray, Orkun Akseli Page 97</ref> Therefore, wealth is taxed through Zakat, but trade is not taxed. Usury, which allows the rich to get richer without sharing in the risk, is forbidden in Islam. Profit sharing and venture capital where the lender is also exposed to risk is acceptable.<ref>

  • Ibn Majah Vol 3 Hadith 2289
  • International Business Success in a Strange Cultural Environment By Mamarinta P. Mababaya Page 202
  • Islamic Capital Markets: Theory and Practice By Noureddine Krichene Page 119

</ref> Hoarding of food for speculation is also discouraged.<ref>

  • Abu Daud Hadith 2015
  • Ibn Majah Vold 3 Hadith 2154
  • The Stability of Islamic Finance: Creating a Resilient Financial Environment By Zamir Iqbal, Abbas Mirakhor, Noureddine Krichenne, Hossein Askari Page 75

</ref>

Grabbing other people's land is also prohibited. The prohibition of usury has resulted in the development of Islamic banking. During the time of Muhammad, any money that went to the state, was immediately used to help the poor. Then in 634, Umar formally established the welfare state Bayt al-mal. The Bayt al-mal or the welfare state was for the Muslim and Non-Muslim poor, needy, elderly, orphans, widows, and the disabled. The Bayt al-mal ran for hundreds of years under the Rashidun Caliphate in the 7th century and continued through the Umayyad period and well into the Abbasid era. Umar also introduced Child Benefit and Pensions for the children and the elderly.<ref>Administrative Development: An Islamic Perspective By Muhammad Al-Buraey Page 254 [9]</ref><ref>The challenge of Islamic renaissance By Syed Abdul Quddus</ref><ref>Administrative Development: An Islamic Perspective By Muhammad Al-Buraey Page 252 [10]</ref><ref>Şablon:Cite book</ref>

Jihad

Şablon:Main article

Jihad means "to strive or struggle" (in the way of God). Jihad, in its broadest sense, is "exerting one's utmost power, efforts, endeavors, or ability in contending with an object of disapprobation". Depending on the object being a visible enemy, the Devil, and aspects of one's own self (such as sinful desires), different categories of jihad are defined.<ref>Firestone (1999) pp. 17–18</ref> Jihad, when used without any qualifier, is understood in its military aspect.<ref>Reuven Firestone (1999), The Meaning of Jihād, p. 17–18</ref><ref>Britannica Encyclopedia, Jihad</ref> Jihad also refers to one's striving to attain religious and moral perfection.<ref>

</ref> Some Muslim authorities, especially among the Shi'a and Sufis, distinguish between the "greater jihad", which pertains to spiritual self-perfection, and the "lesser jihad", defined as warfare.<ref>

</ref>

Within Islamic jurisprudence, jihad is usually taken to mean military exertion against non-believer/non-Muslim/Muslim combatants. The ultimate purpose of military jihad is debated, both within the Islamic community and without. Jihad is the only form of warfare permissible in Islamic law and may be declared against illegal works, terrorists, criminal groups, rebels, apostates, and leaders or states who oppress Muslims.<ref>Şablon:Harvtxt</ref><ref name="jihad">Şablon:Cite encyclopedia</ref> Most Muslims today interpret Jihad as only a defensive form of warfare.<ref>Knowing the Enemy: Jihadist Ideology and the War on Terror, Mary R. Habeck, Yale University Press, p.108–109, 118</ref> Jihad only becomes an individual duty for those vested with authority. For the rest of the populace, this happens only in the case of a general mobilization.<ref name="jihad" /> For most Twelver Shias, offensive jihad can only be declared by a divinely appointed leader of the Muslim community, and as such is suspended since Muhammad al-Mahdi's<ref name="Islam 2003 pp 72">Seyyed Hossein Nasr The Heart of Islam, Enduring Values for Humanity (April., 2003), pp 72</ref> occultation in 868 AD.<ref>Şablon:Harvtxt</ref>

History

Şablon:Main article Şablon:Wide image

Muhammad (610–632)

Şablon:Main article Şablon:See also Muslim tradition views Muhammad (c. 570 – June 8, 632) as the seal of the prophets.<ref>

</ref> During the last 22 years of his life, beginning at age 40 in 610 CE, according to the earliest surviving biographies, Muhammad reported revelations that he believed to be from God, conveyed to him through the archangel Gabriel (Jibril). Muhammad's companions memorized and recorded the content of these revelations, known as the Quran.<ref>

</ref>

During this time, Muhammad in Mecca preached to the people, imploring them to abandon polytheism and to worship one God. Although some converted to Islam, the leading Meccan authorities persecuted Muhammad and his followers. This resulted in the Migration to Abyssinia of some Muslims (to the Aksumite Empire). Many early converts to Islam were the poor and former slaves like Bilal ibn Rabah al-Habashi. The Meccan élite felt that Muhammad was destabilising their social order by preaching about one God and about racial equality, and that in the process he gave ideas to the poor and to their slaves.<ref>The Qur'an with Annotated Interpretation in Modern English 

By Ali Ünal Page 1323 [11]</ref><ref>Encyclopedia of the Qur'an, Slaves and Slavery</ref><ref>Bilal b. Rabah, Encyclopedia of Islam</ref><ref>The Cambridge History of Islam (1977), p.36</ref>

After 12 years of the persecution of Muslims by the Meccans and the Meccan boycott of the Hashemites, Muhammad's relatives, Muhammad and the Muslims performed the Hijra ("emigration") to the city of Medina (formerly known as Yathrib) in 622. There, with the Medinan converts (Ansar) and the Meccan migrants (Muhajirun), Muhammad in Medina established his political and religious authority. A state was establishedŞablon:By whom in accordance with Islamic economic jurisprudence. The Constitution of Medina was formulated, instituting a number of rights and responsibilities for the Muslim, Jewish, Christian and pagan communities of Medina, bringing them within the fold of one community—the Ummah.<ref>Serjeant (1978), p. 4.</ref><ref>Watt. Muhammad at Medina. pp. 227-228 Watt argues that the initial agreement came about shortly after the hijra and that the document was amended at a later date - specifically after the battle of Badr (AH [anno hijra] 2, = AD 624). Serjeant argues that the constitution is in fact 8 different treaties which can be dated according to events as they transpired in Medina, with the first treaty written shortly after Muhammad's arrival. R. B. Serjeant. "The Sunnah Jâmi'ah, Pacts with the Yathrib Jews, and the Tahrîm of Yathrib: Analysis and Translation of the Documents Comprised in the so-called 'Constitution of Medina'." in The Life of Muhammad: The Formation of the Classical Islamic World: Volume iv. Ed. Uri Rubin. Brookfield: Ashgate, 1998, p. 151 and see same article in BSOAS 41 (1978): 18 ff. See also Caetani. Annali dell'Islam, Volume I. Milano: Hoepli, 1905, p. 393. Julius Wellhausen. Skizzen und Vorabeiten, IV, Berlin: Reimer, 1889, p 82f who argue that the document is a single treaty agreed upon shortly after the hijra. Wellhausen argues that it belongs to the first year of Muhammad's residence in Medina, before the battle of Badr in 2/624. Even Moshe Gil a skeptic of Islamic history argues that it was written within five months of Muhammad's arrival in Medina. Moshe Gil. "The Constitution of Medina: A Reconsideration." Israel Oriental Studies 4 (1974): p. 45.</ref>

The Constitution established:

  • the security of the community
  • religious freedoms
  • the role of Medina as a sacred place (barring all violence and weapons)
  • the security of women
  • stable tribal relations within Medina
  • a tax system for supporting the community in time of conflict
  • parameters for exogenous political alliances
  • a system for granting protection of individuals
  • a judicial system for resolving disputes where non-Muslims could also use their own laws and have their own judges.<ref name="B. Serjeant 1978">R. B. Serjeant, "Sunnah Jami'ah, pacts with the Yathrib Jews, and the Tahrim of Yathrib: analysis and translation of the documents comprised in the so-called 'Constitution of Medina'", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies (1978), 41: 1-42, Cambridge University Press.</ref><ref name="Watt 1964 p.4">Watt. Muhammad at Medina and R. B. Serjeant "The Constitution of Medina." Islamic Quarterly 8 (1964) p.4.</ref><ref name="Constitution of Medina">Şablon:Cite web</ref>

All the tribes signed the agreement to defend Medina from all external threats and to live in harmony amongst themselves. Within a few years, two battles took place against the Meccan forces: first, the Battle of Badr in 624 - a Muslim victory, and then a year later, when the Meccans returned to Medina, the Battle of Uhud, which ended inconclusively.

The Arab tribes in the rest of Arabia then formed a confederation and during the Battle of the Trench (March–April 627) besieged Medina, intent on finishing off Islam. In 628, the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah was signed between Mecca and the Muslims and was broken by Mecca two years later. After the signing of the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah many more people converted to Islam. At the same time, Meccan trade routes were cut off as Muhammad brought surrounding desert tribes under his control.<ref>

</ref> By 629 Muhammad was victorious in the nearly bloodless conquest of Mecca, and by the time of his death in 632 (at the age of 62) he had united the tribes of Arabia into a single religious polity.<ref name="EoI-Muhammad"> Şablon:Cite encyclopedia </ref>

The earliest three generations of Muslims are known as the Salaf, with the companions of Muhammad being known as the Sahaba. Many of them, such as the largest narrator of hadith Abu Hureyrah, recorded and compiled what would constitute the sunnah.

Caliphate and civil strife (632–750)

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Dome of the Rock built by Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan; completed at the end of the Second Fitna.

Şablon:Further information

With Muhammad's death in 632, disagreement broke out over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community. Abu Bakr, a companion and close friend of Muhammad, was made the first caliph. Under Abu Bakr, Muslims put down a rebellion by Arab tribes in an episode known as the Ridda wars, or "Wars of Apostasy".<ref>

</ref> The Quran was compiled into a single volume at this time.

Abu Bakr's death in 634 resulted in the succession of Umar ibn al-Khattab as the caliph, followed by Uthman ibn al-Affan, Ali ibn Abi Talib and Hasan ibn Ali. The first four caliphs are known in Sunni Islam as al-khulafā' ar-rāshidūn ("Rightly Guided Caliphs").<ref>Şablon:Cite encyclopedia</ref> Under them, the territory under Muslim rule expanded deeply into the parts of the Persian and Byzantine territories.<ref>See

When Umar was assassinated by Persians in 644, the election of Uthman as successor was met with increasing opposition. The standard copies of the Quran were also distributed throughout the Islamic State. In 656, Uthman was also killed, and Ali assumed the position of caliph. This led to the first civil war (the "First Fitna") over who should be caliph. Ali was assassinated by Kharijites in 661. To avoid further fighting, the new caliph Hasan ibn Ali signed a peace treaty, abdicating to Mu'awiyah, beginning the Umayyad dynasty, in return that he not name his own successor.<ref>Holt (1977a), pp.67–72</ref> These disputes over religious and political leadership would give rise to schism in the Muslim community. The majority accepted the legitimacy of the first four leaders, and became known as Sunnis. A minority disagreed, and believed that only Ali and some of his descendants should rule; they became known as the Shia.<ref>Waines (2003) p.46</ref> Mu'awiyah appointed his son, Yazid I, as successor and after Mu'awiyah's death in 680, the "Second Fitna" broke out, where Husayn ibn Ali was killed at the Battle of Karbala, a significant event in Shia Islam.

The Umayyad dynasty conquered the Maghreb, the Iberian Peninsula, Narbonnese Gaul and Sindh.<ref>Donald Puchala, Theory and History in International Relations, page 137. Routledge, 2003.</ref> Local populations of Jews and indigenous Christians, persecuted as religious minorities and taxed heavily to finance the Byzantine–Sassanid Wars, often aided Muslims to take over their lands from the Byzantines and Persians, resulting in exceptionally speedy conquests.<ref>Esposito (2010), p.38</ref><ref>Hofmann (2007), p.86</ref>

The generation after the death of Muhammad but contemporaries of his companions are known as the Tabi‘un, followed by the Tabi‘ al-Tabi‘in. The Caliph Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz set up the influential committee, "The Seven Fuqaha of Medina",<ref>The Caliphate of Banu Umayyah the first Phase, Ibn Katheer, Taken from Al-Bidayah wan-Nihayah by Ibn Katheer, Ismail Ibn Omar 775 ISBN 978-603-500-080-2 Translated by Yoosuf Al-Hajj Ahmad Page 505</ref><ref>Umar Ibn Adbul Aziz By Imam Abu Muhammad Adbullah ibn Abdul Hakam died 214 AH 829 C.E. Publisher Zam Zam Publishers Karachi Page 54-59</ref> headed by Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr.<ref>The Caliphate of Banu Umayyah the first Phase, Ibn Katheer, Taken from Al-Bidayah wan-Nihayah by Ibn Katheer, Ismail Ibn Omar 775 ISBN 978-603-500-080-2 Translated by Yoosuf Al-Hajj Ahmad Page 522</ref> Malik ibn Anas wrote one of the earliest books on Islamic jurisprudence, the Muwatta,<ref name="bewley.virtualave.net">Şablon:Cite web</ref> as a consensus of the opinion of those jurists.<ref name="Coulson">Şablon:Cite book</ref><ref>E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913–1936, Volume 5 By Martijn Theodoor Houtsma page 207 [12]</ref><ref>Moshe Sharon, Studies in Islamic History and Civilization: In Honour of Professor David Ayalon. Page 264 [13]</ref>

The descendants of Muhammad's uncle Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib rallied discontented non-Arab converts (mawali), poor Arabs, and some Shi'a against the Umayyads and overthrew them, inaugurating the Abbasid dynasty in 750.<ref>Şablon:Harvtxt; Şablon:Harvtxt</ref>

Classical era (750–1258)

During this time, the Delhi Sultanate took over northern parts of Indian subcontinent. Religious missions converted Volga Bulgaria to Islam. Many Muslims also went to China to trade, virtually dominating the import and export industry of the Song Dynasty.<ref name=china>Şablon:Cite web</ref>

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The eye, according to Hunain ibn Ishaq from a manuscript dated circa 1200.

This era is sometimes called the "Islamic Golden Age".<ref>

Al-Shafi'i codified a method to determine the reliability of hadith.<ref>Lapidus (2002), p.86</ref> During the early Abbasid era, the major Sunni hadith collections were compiled by scholars such as Bukhari and Muslim while major Shia hadith collections by scholars such as Al-Kulayni and Ibn Babawayh were also compiled. The Ja'fari jurisprudence was formed from the teachings of Ja'far al-Sadiq while the four Sunni Madh'habs, the Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki and Shafi'i, were established around the teachings of Abū Ḥanīfa, Ahmad bin Hanbal, Malik ibn Anas and al-Shafi'i respectively. In the 9th century, al-Shafi'i provided a theoretical basis for Islamic law by codifying the principles of jurisprudence in his book ar-Risālah.<ref>Şablon:Harvtxt</ref> Al-Tabari and Ibn Kathir completed the most commonly cited commentaries on the Quran, the Tafsir al-Tabari in the 9th century and the Tafsir ibn Kathir in the 14th century, respectively. Philosophers Al-Farabi and Avicenna sought to incorporate Greek principles into Islamic theology, while others like Al-Ghazali argued against them and ultimately prevailed.<ref>

  • Lapidus (2002), p.160
  • Waines (2003) p.126,127

</ref>

Caliphs such as Mamun al Rashid and Al-Mu'tasim made the mutazilite philosophy an official creed and imposed it upon Muslims to follow. Mu'tazila was a Greek influenced school of speculative theology called kalam, which refers to dialectic.<ref>Şablon:Harvtxt</ref> Many orthodox Muslims rejected mutazilite doctrines and condemned their idea of the creation of the Quran. In inquisitions, Imam Hanbal refused to conform and was tortured and sent to an unlit Baghdad prison cell for nearly thirty months.<ref>Şablon:Cite book</ref> The other branch of kalam was the Ash'ari school founded by Al-Ash'ari.

Some Muslims began to question the piety of indulgence in a worldly life and emphasized poverty, humility and avoidance of sin based on renunciation of bodily desires. Ascetics such as Hasan al-Basri would inspire a movement that would evolve into Tasawwuf (Sufism).<ref>

</ref> Beginning in the 13th century, Sufism underwent a transformation, largely because of efforts to legitimize and reorganize the movement by Al-Ghazali, who developed the model of the Sufi order—a community of spiritual teachers and students.<ref>Şablon:Harvtxt</ref>

The first Muslims states independent of a unified Muslim state emerged from the Berber Revolt (739/740-743). In 930, the Ismaili group known as the Qarmatians unsuccessfully rebelled against the Abbassids, sacked Mecca and stole the Black Stone, which was eventually retrieved.<ref>Şablon:Cite encyclopedia</ref> The Mongol Empire put an end to the Abbassid dynasty in 1258.<ref>

</ref>

Pre-Modern era (1258–20th century)

Dosya:Portrait Caliph Abdulmecid II.jpg
Abdülmecid II was the last Caliph of Islam from the Ottoman dynasty.

Islam spread with Muslim trade networks and Sufi orders activity that extended into Sub-Saharan Africa, Central Asia and the Malay archipelago.<ref name="EoI-Islam">Şablon:Cite encyclopedia</ref><ref>Şablon:Cite web</ref> Under the Ottoman Empire, Islam spread to Southeast Europe.<ref>Şablon:Cite web</ref> The Muslims in China who were descended from earlier immigration began to assimilate by adopting Chinese names and culture while Nanjing became an important center of Islamic study.<ref>Israeli, Raphael (2002). Islam in China. pg 292. United States of America: Lexington Books. ISBN 0-7391-0375-X.</ref><ref>Şablon:Cite book</ref>

The Muslim world was generally in political decline starting the 1800s, especially relative to the non-Muslim European powers. This decline was evident culturally; while Taqi al-Din founded an observatory in Istanbul and the Jai Singh Observatory was built in the 18th century, there was not a single Muslim country with a major observatory by the twentieth century.<ref>Ahmed, Imad-ad-Dean. Signs in the heavens. 2. Amana Publications, 2006. pg170. Print. ISBN 1-59008-040-8</ref> The Reconquista, launched against Muslim principalities in Iberia, succeeded in 1492. By the 19th century the British Empire had formally ended the Mughal dynasty in India.<ref>Lapidus (2002), pp.358,378–380,624</ref> The Ottoman Empire disintegrated after World War I and the Caliphate was abolished in 1924.<ref>Lapidus (2002), pp.380,489–493</ref><ref>Şablon:Cite news</ref>

The majority and oldest group among Shia at that time, the Zaydis, named after the great grandson of Ali, the scholar Zayd ibn Ali, used the Hanafi jurisprudence, as did most Sunnis.<ref name="books.google.co.uk-mae">Islamic Finance: Law, Economics, and Practice By Mahmoud A. El-Gamal Page 122 [14]</ref><ref name="Arab-Israeli Conflict Page 917">The Encyclopedia of the Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Political, Social and Military History edited by Spencer C. Tucker, Priscilla Mary Roberts Page 917 [15]</ref><ref name="The Iraq Effect Page 91">The Iraq Effect: The Middle East After the Iraq War By Frederic M. Wehrey Page 91 [16]</ref> The Shia Safavid dynasty rose to power in 1501 and later conquered all of Iran.<ref>Peter B. Golden: An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples; In: Osman Karatay, Ankara 2002, p.321</ref> The ensuing mandatory conversion of Iran to Twelver Shia Islam for the largely Sunni population also ensured the final dominance of the Twelver sect within Shiism over the Zaidi and Ismaili sects.<ref>"Ismail Safavi" Encyclopædia Iranica</ref> Nader Shah, who overthrew the Safavids, attempted to improve relations with Sunnis by propagating the integration of Shiism by calling it the Jaafari Madh'hab.<ref>Nadir Shah and the Ja 'fari Madhhab Reconsidered, Ernest Tucker, Iranian Studies, Vol. 27, No. 1/4, Religion and Society in Islamic Iran during the Pre-Modern Era (1994), pp. 163-179, Published by: International Society for Iranian Studies [17]</ref>

A revival movement during this period was an 18th-century Salafi movement led by Ibn Abd al-Wahhab in today's Saudi Arabia. Referred to as Wahhabi, their self designation is Muwahiddun (unitarians). Building upon earlier efforts such as those by Ibn Taymiyyah and Ibn al-Qayyim, the movement allegedly seeks to uphold monotheism and purify Islam of what they see as later innovations. Their zeal against idolatrous shrines led to the desecration of shrines around the world, including that of Muhammad and his companions in Mecca and Medina.<ref>Şablon:Harvtxt</ref><ref>Şablon:Cite news</ref> In the 19th century, the Deobandi and Barelwi movements were initiated.

Modern times (20th century–present)

Şablon:Further information

Dosya:Flag of OIC.svg
The flag of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation.

Contact with industrialized nations brought Muslim populations to new areas through economic migration. Many Muslims migrated as indentured servants, from mostly India and Indonesia, to the Caribbean, forming the largest Muslim populations by percentage in the Americas.<ref>Muslim Minorities in the West: Visible and Invisible By Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad, Jane I. Smith, pg 271</ref> The resulting urbanization and increase in trade in sub-Saharan Africa brought Muslims to settle in new areas and spread their faith, likely doubling its Muslim population between 1869 and 1914.<ref>Bulliet, Richard, Pamela Crossley, Daniel Headrick, Steven Hirsch, Lyman Johnson, and David Northrup. The Earth and Its Peoples. 3. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2005. ISBN 0-618-42770-8</ref> Muslim immigrants began arriving, many as guest workers and largely from former colonies, in several Western European nations since the 1960s.

There are more and more new Muslim intellectuals who increasingly separate perennial Islamic beliefs from archaic cultural traditions.<ref>Şablon:Harvtxt</ref> Liberal Islam is a movement that attempts to reconcile religious tradition with modern norms of secular governance and human rights. Its supporters say that there are multiple ways to read Islam's sacred texts, and they stress the need to leave room for "independent thought on religious matters".<ref>Şablon:Harvtxt and Şablon:Harvtxt</ref> Women's issues receive significant weight in the modern discourse on Islam.<ref name="Rippin 2001, p.288">Şablon:Harvtxt</ref>

Secular powers such as the Chinese Red Guards closed many mosques and destroyed Qurans,<ref>*Şablon:Cite journal</ref> and Communist Albania became the first country to ban the practice of every religion.<ref>Page18*Şablon:Wikicite</ref> About half a million Muslims were killed in Cambodia by communists who, it is argued, viewed them as their primary enemy and wished to exterminate them since they stood out and worshipped their own god.<ref>Şablon:Cite web Şablon:Subscription needed</ref> In Turkey, the military carried out coups to oust Islamist governments, and headscarves were banned in official buildings, as also happened in Tunisia.<ref>Şablon:Cite news</ref><ref>Şablon:Cite news</ref>

Jamal-al-Din al-Afghani, along with his acolyte Muhammad Abduh, have been credited as forerunners of the Islamic revival.<ref>Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World, Thomson Gale, 2004</ref> Abul A'la Maududi helped influence modern political Islam.<ref>Şablon:Cite news</ref> Islamist groups such as the Muslim Brotherhood advocate Islam as a comprehensive political solution, often in spite of being banned.<ref>Şablon:Cite news</ref> In Iran, revolution replaced a secular regime with an Islamic state. In Turkey, the Islamist AK Party has democratically been in power for about a decade, while Islamist parties did well in elections following the Arab Spring.<ref>Şablon:Cite news</ref> The Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), consisting of Muslim countries, was established in 1969 after the burning of the Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem.<ref>Şablon:Cite news</ref>

Piety appears to be deepening worldwide.<ref>Şablon:Cite web</ref><ref name=economist/><ref>Şablon:Cite news</ref> In many places, the prevalence of the hijab is growing increasingly common<ref>Şablon:Cite news</ref> and the percentage of Muslims favoring Sharia laws has increased.<ref>Şablon:Cite web Şablon:Subscription needed</ref> With religious guidance increasingly available electronically, Muslims are able to access views that are strict enough for them rather than rely on state clerics who are often seen as stooges.<ref name=economist>Şablon:Cite book</ref>

It is estimated that, by 2050, the number of Muslims will nearly equal the number of Christians around the world, "driven primarily by differences in fertility rates and the size of youth populations among the world's major religions, as well as by people switching faiths."<ref name=pew2015/> Perhaps as a sign of these changes, most experts agree that Islam is growing faster than any other faith in East and West Africa.<ref>Şablon:Cite news</ref><ref>Şablon:Cite web</ref>

Denominations

Şablon:Main article Şablon:See also

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750px

Sunni

Şablon:Sunni Islam Şablon:Main article

Dosya:Sahih Al-Bukhari in English.png
Sahih Al-Bukhari, one of the six Sunni hadith books.

The largest denomination in Islam is Sunni Islam, which makes up 75%–90% of all Muslims<ref name="Sunni-eb">

Şablon:Cite web</ref><ref>Şablon:Cite web</ref><ref>Şablon:Cite web</ref> These hadiths, recounting Muhammad's words, actions, and personal characteristics, are preserved in traditions known as Al-Kutub Al-Sittah (six major books).

Sunnis believe that the first four caliphs were the rightful successors to Muhammad; since God did not specify any particular leaders to succeed him and those leaders were elected. Sunnis believe that anyone who is righteous and just could be a caliph but they have to act according to the Quran and the Hadith, the example of Muhammad and give the people their rights.

The Sunnis follow the Quran, then the Hadith. Then for legal matters not found in the Quran or the Hadith, they follow four madh'habs (schools of thought): Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki and Shafi'i, established around the teachings of Abū Ḥanīfa, Ahmad bin Hanbal, Malik ibn Anas and al-Shafi'i respectively. All four accept the validity of the others and a Muslim may choose any one that he or she finds agreeable.<ref>

The Salafi movement claim to take the first three generations of Muslims, known as the salaf, as exemplary models.<ref>Salafi Islam GlobalSecurity.org. Retrieved on 2010-11-09.</ref> In the 18th century, Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab led a salafi movement, referred by outsiders as Wahhabism, in modern-day Saudi Arabia.

The Barelvi movement, a revivalist movement of Sunni Islam with over 200 million followers,<ref>Şablon:Cite web</ref> emerged as part of debate of how to redeem India from the British. The movement emphasizes primacy of Islamic law in all matters with adherence to Sufi practices and personal devotion to Muhammad and has addressed leading issues for Muslims since partition.<ref name="journals.cambridge.org">Usha Sanyal. Generational Changes in the Leadership of the Ahl-e Sunnat Movement in North India during the Twentieth Century. Modern Asiantudies (1998), Cambridge University Press.</ref><ref>Şablon:Cite web</ref> The Deobandi movement is an Indo-Pakistani reformist movement that is much influenced by the Wahhabi movement.<ref>Şablon:Cite web</ref> The Barelvi and Deobandi movements of Sunni Islam accept the validity of all four Sunni madh'habs.<ref name="Kabir2010">Şablon:Cite book</ref>

Shia

Şablon:Shia Islam Şablon:Main article Şablon:See also

Dosya:Kerbela Hussein Moschee.jpg
The Imam Hussein Shrine in Karbala, Iraq is a holy site for Shia Muslims.

The Shia constitute 10–20% of Islam and are its second-largest branch.<ref name=Shia>See

</ref>

While the Sunnis believe that a Caliph should be elected by the community, Shia's believe that Muhammad appointed his son-in-law, Ali ibn Abi Talib, as his successor and only certain descendants of Ali could be Imams. As a result, they believe that Ali ibn Abi Talib was the first Imam (leader), rejecting the legitimacy of the previous Muslim caliphs Abu Bakr, Uthman ibn al-Affan and Umar ibn al-Khattab. Another point of contention is the cursing of figures revered by Sunnis. However, Jafar al-Sadiq himself disapproved of people who disapproved of his great grand father Abu Bakr and Zayd ibn Ali revered Abu Bakr and Umar.<ref name="Tabarī, Carole Hillenbrand 1989, p37">The waning of the Umayyad caliphate by Tabarī, Carole Hillenbrand, 1989, p37, p38</ref><ref name="Religion Vol 1987, p243">The Encyclopedia of Religion Vol.16, Mircea Eliade, Charles J. Adams, Macmillan, 1987, p243.</ref> More recently, Grand Ayatollah Ali al-Sistani condemned the practice.<ref>Şablon:Cite news</ref>

Shia Islam has several branches, the most prominent being the Twelvers (the largest branch), Zaidis and Ismailis. Different branches accept different descendants of Ali as Imams. After the death of Imam Jafar al-Sadiq who is considered the sixth Imam by the Twelvers and the Ismaili's, the Ismailis recognized his son Isma'il ibn Jafar as his successor whereas the Twelver Shia's (Ithna Asheri) followed his other son Musa al-Kadhim as the seventh Imam. The Zaydis consider Zayd ibn Ali, the uncle of Imam Jafar al-Sadiq, as their fifth Imam, and follow a different line of succession after him.

Other smaller groups include the Bohra as well as the Alawites and Alevi.<ref>

</ref> Some Shia branches label other Shia branches that do not agree with their doctrine as Ghulat.

Sufism

Şablon:Main article Şablon:See also

Dosya:Mevlana Konya.jpg
Mawlānā Rumi's tomb, Konya, Turkey

Sufism, or tasawwuf (Şablon:Lang-ar), is a mystical-ascetic approach to Islam that seeks to find a direct personal experience of God. It is not a sect of Islam and its adherents belong to the various Muslim denominations. Classical Sufi scholars have focused on the reparation of the heart and turning it away from all else but God by making use of "intuitive and emotional faculties" that one must be trained to use.<ref>Trimingham (1998), p.1</ref><ref>

</ref><ref>Ahmed Zarruq, Zaineb Istrabadi, Hamza Yusuf Hanson. The Principles of Sufism. Amal Press. 2008.</ref> Hasan al-Basri was inspired by the ideas of piety and condemnation of worldliness preached by Muhammad and these ideas were later further developed by Al-Ghazali. Traditional Sufis, such as Bayazid Bastami, Jalaluddin Rumi, Haji Bektash Veli, Junaid Baghdadi, and Al-Ghazali, argued for Sufism being based upon the tenets of Islam and the teachings of Muhammad.<ref>Şablon:Citation</ref><ref>Şablon:Citation</ref><ref name="chittick">Şablon:Cite book</ref><ref name="nasr">Şablon:Cite book</ref>

Sufism enjoyed a strong revival in central Asia and South Asia. Central Asia is considered to be a center of Sufism. Sufism has played a significant role in fighting against Tsars of Russia and Soviet colonization. Here, Sufis and their different orders are the main religious sources.<ref>Şablon:Cite web</ref><ref>Şablon:Cite web</ref> Sufism is also strong in African countries such as Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, Senegal, Chad and Niger.<ref name="Pew"/><ref>"Sufism and Religious Brotherhoods in Senegal", Babou, Cheikh Anta, The International Journal of African Historical Studies, v. 40 no. 1 (2007) pp. 184–6</ref>

Sufi practices such as veneration of saints have faced stiff opposition from followers of Salafism and Wahhabism, who have sometimes physically attacked Sufi places of worship, leading to deterioration in Sufi–Salafi relations.

Other denominations

Non-denominational Muslims

Şablon:Main article

Non-denominational Muslims is an umbrella term that has been used for and by Muslims who do not belong to or do not self-identify with a specific Islamic denomination.<ref>Şablon:Cite news</ref><ref name="Longton">Şablon:Cite news</ref><ref name="Kirkham">Şablon:Cite news</ref><ref name="Pollack">Şablon:Cite book</ref> Prominent figures who refused to identify with a particular Islamic denomination have included Jamal ad-Din al-Afghani,<ref>Şablon:Cite book</ref> Muhammad Iqbal<ref name=Jones2011>Şablon:Cite book</ref> and Muhammad Ali Jinnah.<ref>Şablon:Cite news</ref> Recent surveys report that large proportions of Muslims in some parts of the world self-identify as "just Muslim", although there is little published analysis available regarding the motivations underlying this response.<ref name="Pew">Şablon:Cite web</ref><ref>Şablon:Cite book</ref><ref>Şablon:Cite book</ref><ref>Şablon:Cite book</ref> The Pew Research Center reports that respondents self-identifying as "just Muslim" make up a majority of Muslims in seven countries (and a plurality in three others), with the highest proportion in Kazakhstan at 74%. At least one in five Muslims in at least 22 countries self-identify in this way.<ref name="Pew"/>

Demographics

Şablon:Main article Şablon:See also

Dosya:Islam percent population in each nation World Map Muslim data by Pew Research.svg
World Muslim population by percentage (Pew Research Center, 2014).

A comprehensive 2009 demographic study of 232 countries and territories reported that 23% of the global population, or 1.57 billion people, are Muslims. Of those, it is estimated that over 75–90% are Sunni and 10–20% are Shia<ref name="mgmpPRC"> Şablon:Harvtxt</ref><ref name="Britannica">Şablon:Cite encyclopedia</ref><ref>CIA retrieved 21 Dec 2011</ref> with a small minority belonging to other sects. Approximately 57 countries are Muslim-majority,<ref>Şablon:Harvtxt</ref> and Arabs account for around 20% of all Muslims worldwide.<ref>Şablon:Cite book</ref> The number of Muslims worldwide increased from 200 million in 1900 to 551 million in 1970,<ref>Şablon:Cite book </ref> and tripled to 1.6 billion by 2010.<ref name=pew2015>Şablon:Cite web</ref>

The majority of Muslims live in Asia and Africa.<ref>Şablon:Cite webŞablon:Subscription needed</ref> Approximately 62% of the world's Muslims live in Asia, with over 683 million adherents in Indonesia, Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh.<ref name="USN&WR">Şablon:Cite web Information provided by the International Population Center, Department of Geography, San Diego State University (2005).</ref><ref>Şablon:Harvtxt</ref> In the Middle East, non-Arab countries such as Turkey and Iran are the largest Muslim-majority countries; in Africa, Egypt and Nigeria have the most populous Muslim communities.<ref name="Islam_by_country">Şablon:Cite web</ref>

Most estimates indicate that the People's Republic of China has approximately 20 to 30 million Muslims (1.5% to 2% of the population).<ref>Şablon:Cite web</ref><ref>Şablon:Cite web</ref><ref>Şablon:Cite web</ref><ref>Şablon:Cite web</ref> However, data provided by the San Diego State University's International Population Center to U.S. News & World Report suggests that China has 65.3 million Muslims.<ref>Secrets of Islam, U.S. News & World Report. Information provided by the International Population Center, Department of Geography, San Diego State University.</ref> Islam is the second largest religion after Christianity in many European countries,<ref>

</ref> and is slowly catching up to that status in the Americas, with between 2,454,000, according to Pew Forum, and approximately 7 million Muslims, according to the Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR), in the United States.<ref name="mgmpPRC"/><ref>The Mosque in America: A National Portrait Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR). April 26, 2001. Retrieved on 2010-08-01.</ref>

According to the Pew Research Center, Islam is set to equal Christianity in number of adherents by the year 2050. Islam is set to grow faster than any other major world religion, reaching a total number of 2.76 billion (an increase of 73%). High fertility rates play a factor, with Islam having a rate of 3.1 compared to the world average of 2.5, and the minimum replacement level for a population at 2.1. Age also plays a role in these numbers due to the fact that Islam has the highest number of adherents under the age of 15 (34% of the total religion) of any major religion (Christianity's is 27%). Sixty percent of Muslims are between the ages of 16 and 59, while only 7% are aged 60+ (the smallest percentage of any major religion). Countries such as Nigeria and the Republic of Macedonia are expected to have Muslim majorities by 2050. In India, the Muslim population will be larger than any other country. Europe's domestic population is set to shrink as opposed to their Islamic population which is set to grow to 10% of Europe's total.<ref name=pew2015/> According to BBC News, the rates of growth of Islam in Europe reveal that the growing number of Muslims is due primarily to immigration and higher birth rates.<ref>Şablon:Cite news</ref>

Culture

Şablon:Main article The term "Islamic culture" could be used to mean aspects of culture that pertain to the religion, such as festivals and dress code. It is also controversially used to denote the cultural aspects of traditionally Muslim people.<ref>Şablon:Cite news</ref> Finally, "Islamic civilization" may also refer to the aspects of the synthesized culture of the early Caliphates, including that of non-Muslims,<ref>Şablon:Harvtxt</ref> sometimes referred to as "Islamicate".

Architecture

Şablon:Main article Perhaps the most important expression of Islamic architecture is that of the mosque.<ref>"Islam", The New Encyclopædia Britannica (2005)</ref> Varying cultures have an effect on mosque architecture. For example, North African and Spanish Islamic architecture such as the Great Mosque of Kairouan contain marble and porphyry columns from Roman and Byzantine buildings,<ref>Şablon:Cite book</ref> while mosques in Indonesia often have multi-tiered roofs from local Javan styles.

Art

Şablon:Main article Islamic art encompasses the visual arts produced from the 7th century onwards by people (not necessarily Muslim) who lived within the territory that was inhabited by Muslim populations.<ref>Marilyn Jenkins-Madina, Richard Ettinghauset and Architecture 650–1250, Yale University Press, ISBN 0-300-08869-8, p.3</ref> It includes fields as varied as architecture, calligraphy, painting, and ceramics, among others.

While not condemned in the Quran, making images of human beings and animals is frowned on in many Islamic cultures and connected with laws against idolatry common to all Abrahamic religions, as 'Abdullaah ibn Mas'ood reported that Muhammad said, "Those who will be most severely punished by Allah on the Day of Resurrection will be the image-makers" (reported by al-Bukhaari, see al-Fath, 10/382). However this rule has been interpreted in different ways by different scholars and in different historical periods, and there are examples of paintings of both animals and humans in Mughal, Persian and Turkish art. The existence of this aversion to creating images of animate beings has been used to explain the prevalence of calligraphy, tessellation and pattern as key aspects of Islamic artistic culture.<ref>Şablon:Cite book</ref>

  • Basmalah-1wm.svg

    thumb|200px|The phrase Bismillah in 18th-century Ottoman calligraphy in the Thuluth style.

  • Roof hafez tomb.jpg

    thumb|Geometric arabesque tiling on the underside of the dome of Hafiz Shirazi's tomb in Shiraz

Calendar

Şablon:Muslimmonths Şablon:Main article

Dosya:Lunar libration with phase Oct 2007.gif
The phases of the Moon form the basis for the Islamic calendar.

The formal beginning of the Muslim era was chosen, reportedly by Caliph Umar, to be the Hijra in 622 CE, which was an important turning point in Muhammad's fortunes. It is a lunar calendar with days lasting from sunset to sunset.<ref>Patheos Library – Islam Sacred Time – Patheos.com</ref> Islamic holy days fall on fixed dates of the lunar calendar, which means that they occur in different seasons in different years in the Gregorian calendar. The most important Islamic festivals are Eid al-Fitr (Şablon:Lang-ar) on the 1st of Shawwal, marking the end of the fasting month Ramadan, and Eid al-Adha (Şablon:Lang) on the 10th of Dhu al-Hijjah, coinciding with the end of the Hajj pilgrimage.<ref>Ghamidi (2001): Customs and Behavioral Laws</ref>

Criticism

Şablon:Main article Criticism of Islam has existed since Islam's formative stages. Early criticism came from Christian authors, many of whom viewed Islam as a Christian heresy or a form of idolatry and often explained it in apocalyptic terms.<ref>Şablon:Cite book</ref> Later there appeared criticism from the Muslim world itself, and also from Jewish writers and from ecclesiastical Christians.<ref name="WarraqPoetry">Şablon:Cite book</ref><ref name="Ibn Kammuna">Şablon:Cite book</ref><ref name="Oussani">Şablon:Cite web</ref>

Objects of criticism include the morality of the life of Muhammad, the last law bearing prophet of Islam, both in his public and personal life,<ref name="Oussani"/><ref name="WarraqQuest">Şablon:Cite book</ref> as seen in medieval Christian views on Muhammad. Issues relating to the authenticity and morality of the Quran, the Islamic holy book, are also discussed by critics.<ref name="BibleInQuran">Bible in Mohammedian Literature., by Kaufmann Kohler Duncan B. McDonald, Jewish Encyclopedia. Retrieved April 22, 2006.</ref><ref>Şablon:Cite book</ref> Other criticisms focus on the question of human rights in modern Islamic nations, and the treatment of women in Islamic law and practice.<ref name="women">Şablon:Cite web</ref><ref name="IslamInEurope">Şablon:Cite news</ref> In wake of the recent multiculturalism trend, Islam's influence on the ability of Muslim immigrants in the West to assimilate has been criticized.<ref name="Modood">Şablon:Cite book</ref>

See also

Şablon:Main article Şablon:Wikipedia books Şablon:Div col

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References

Notes

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Citations

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Books and journals

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Encyclopedias

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Further reading

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External links

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Academic resources
Online resources
Directories

Şablon:Islam topics Şablon:Religion topics

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