Political divisions and vassals of the Mongol Empire sayfasının kaynağını görüntüle

{{for|the fragmentation of the [[Mongol Empire]]|Division of the Mongol Empire}}
[[File:Mongol dominions1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Mongol world, ca. 1300. The gray area is the later [[Timurid Empire]].<ref>C. P. Atwood ''Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire'', p.403</ref><ref>Herbert Franke, Denis Twitchett, John King Fairbank ''The Cambridge History of China'': Volume 6, "Alien Regimes and Border States", p.473</ref><ref>Colin Mackerras ''China's minorities'', p.29</ref><ref>George Alexander Ballard-''The influence of the sea on the political history of Japan'', p.21</ref><ref>Conrad Schirokauer ''A brief history of Chinese and Japanese civilizations'', p.211</ref>]]
This article discusses the political divisions and vassals of the [[Mongol Empire]]. Through [[Mongol invasions and conquests|invasions and conquests]] the [[Mongols]] established a vast empire that included many political divisions, vassals and tributary states. It was the largest contiguous land empire in history. However, after the death of [[Möngke Khan]], the [[Toluid Civil War]] and subsequent wars had led to the [[Division of the Mongol Empire|fragmentation of the Mongol Empire]]. By 1294, the empire had fractured into four autonomous khanates, including the [[Golden Horde]] in the northwest, the [[Chagatai Khanate]] in the middle, the [[Ilkhanate]] in the southwest, and the [[Yuan dynasty]] in the east based in modern-day [[Beijing]], although the Yuan emperors held the nominal title of [[Khagan]] of the empire.

==Political divisions of the early Mongol Empire==
The political divisions of the early Mongol Empire consisted of five main parts<ref>''A COMPENDIUM OF CHRONICLES: Rashid al-Din's Illustrated History of the World'' (The Nasser D. Khalili Collection of Islamic Art, VOL XXVII) ISBN 0-19-727627-X, the reign of Möngke</ref> in addition to appanage khanates - there were:
* [[Mongolia]], Southern Siberia and Manchuria under [[Karakorum]];
* [[North China]] and [[Tibet under Yuan rule|Tibet]] under [[Yanjing]] Department;
* [[Khorazm]], Mawarannahr and the [[Hami Oases]] under [[Beshbalik]] Department
* Persia, Georgia, Armenia, Cilicia and Turkey (former Seljuk ruled parts) under [[Amu Dar'ya]] Department
* Golden Horde. According to notable Russian scholars A.P.Grigorev and O.B.Frolova, the Ulus of Jochids had 10 provinces: 1. [[Khiva]] or Khorazm, 2. Desht-i-Kipchak, 3. [[Khazaria]], 4. Crimea, 5. the Banks of Azov, 6. the country of [[Circassians]], 7. [[Bulgar (province)|Bulgar]], 8. [[Walachia]], 9. [[Alania]], 10. Russian lands.<ref>A. P. Grigorev and O. B. Frolova "Geographicheskoy opisaniye Zolotoy Ordi" in ''Encyclopedia al-Kashkandi-Tyurkologicheskyh sbornik'',2001-p. 262-302</ref>

When Genghis Khan was campaigning in [[Central Asia]], his entrusted general [[Muqali]] (1170–1223) attempted to set up provinces and established branch departments of state affairs. But Ögedei abolished them and divided the areas of North China into 10 routes (lu, 路) according to the suggestion of [[Yelü Chucai]], a prominent [[Confucian]] statesman of [[Khitan people|Khitan]] ethnicity. He also divided the empire into Beshbalik administration, Yanjing administration while the headquarters in Karakorum directly dealt with Manchuria, Mongolia and Southern Siberia. Late in his reign, Amu Darya administration was established. Under [[Möngke Khan]], these administrations were renamed Branch Departments.

==Yuan dynasty==
{{Main|Administrative divisions of the Yuan dynasty}}
[[Kublai Khan]], the founder of the [[Yuan dynasty]], made significant reforms to the existing institutions. He established the Yuan dynasty in [[China]] in 1271 and assumed the role of a [[Emperor of China|Chinese emperor]]. The Yuan forces seized [[Northern and southern China|South China]] by defeating the [[Southern Song dynasty]] and Kublai became the emperor of all China, but he, on the other hand, had effectively lost control over the western khanates. The territory of the Yuan dynasty was [[Administrative divisions of the Yuan dynasty|divided into]] the Central Region (腹裏) governed by the [[Zhongshu Sheng|Central Secretariat]] (Zhongshu Sheng) and places under control of various [[Branch Secretariat]]s (行中書省) or the [[Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs]] (Xuanzheng Yuan).

==Golden Horde==
{{main|Wings of the Golden Horde}}
The two main divisions of the [[Golden Horde]] (''Jochid Ulus'') are known as the White horde and the Blue horde, also Batu's Ulus (district) and Orda's Ulus.

==Vassals and tributary states==
The Mongol Empire at its greatest extent included all of modern-day [[Mongolia]], China, parts of [[Burma]], [[Romania]], Pakistan, much or all of Russia, [[Siberia]], [[Ukraine]], [[Belarus]], [[Cilicia]], [[Anatolia]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Armenia]], [[Persia]], [[Iraq]], [[Korea]], and Central Asia. In the mean time, many countries became vassals or tributary states of the Mongol Empire.

===European vassals===
*'''[[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]]''', the nominal vassal. However, Mongols under [[Orda Khan|Orda]] and [[Burundai]] successfully invaded southern regions of Lithuania in 1241 and in 1259 (Later [[Nogai Khan|Nogai]]), [[Jogaila]], [[Jagiellon dynasty|the Grand Duke of Lithuania and the King of Poland]], officially acknowledged [[Tokhtamysh]] as overlord in 1382 after the fall of the Yuan in 1368. Mongols of [[Golden Horde]] always counted the Lithuanians among their subjects, and Tokhtamysh demanded Lithuanian king to collect taxes from [[Kiev]] (then under Jogaila and his successors) for his campaign against the [[Timurids]].<ref>René Grousset  ''The Empire of the Steppes'', Ж.Бор Еварзийн дипломат шашстир II боть</ref>
*A number of Russian states, incl. the '''[[Republic of Novgorod]], [[Pskov]] and [[Smolensk]]'''<ref>Л.Н.Гумилев - Древняя Русь и великая степь</ref> Batu khan could not reach northern part of Russia due to the marshlands surrounding city-states such as Novgorod and Pskov in 1239. But combined effects of [[Alexander Nevsky]]'s diplomacy, Mongol threats and [[Teutonic order]] invasion, forced Novgorod and later Pskov accepted the term of vassalage. In 1274, the last of Russian principalities became subject to the Horde of [[Möngke-Temür]].
*'''[[Second Bulgarian Empire]]'''<ref name="autogenerated2">Ринчен Хара Даван - Чингис хан гений</ref> During the end of Mongol invasion of Europe, the [[Bulgarians]] under [[Ivan Asen II of Bulgaria|Ivan Asen II]] tried to destroy Mongol tumen. But [[Kadan]]'s raids through Bulgaria on his retreat from Central Europe induced the young [[Kaliman I of Bulgaria]] to pay tribute and accept Mongol suzerainty. According to a letter of [[Béla IV of Hungary|Béla IV]] to the pope written in 1254 indicates that at that time the Bulgarians were still paying tribute to the Mongols.
*'''[[Kingdom of Serbia]]'''.<ref name="autogenerated2" /> Around 1288 [[Stephen Uroš II Milutin of Serbia|Milutin]] launched an invasion to pacify two Bulgarian nobles in today's north-east Serbia, in the Branicevo region, but those nobles were vassals of the Bulgarian prince of Vidin [[Michael Shishman of Bulgaria|Shishman]]. Shishman attacked Milutin but was defeated and Milutin in return sacked his capital Vidin. But Shishman was a vassal of [[Nogai Khan]], de facto ruler of the [[Golden Horde]]. Nogai Khan threatened to punish Milutin for his insolence, but changed his mind when the Serbian king sent him gifts and hostages. Among the hostages was his son [[Stephen Uroš III Dečanski of Serbia|Stefan Dečanski]] who managed to escape back to [[Serbia]] after Nogai Khan's death in 1299.

===Southeast Asian vassals===
*'''[[Đại Việt]] (Vietnam)'''.<ref name="autogenerated1">René Grousset - ''The Empire of the Steppes'', Ж.Бор Евразийн дипломат шашстир II боть</ref> After the Vietnamese captured Mongol envoys sent to ask a route to attack Southern China, the Mongol forces invaded the [[Trần dynasty]] in 1257. The Mongols routed city defenders and massacred inhabitants of capital Thăng Long ([[Hanoi]]). King Than Tong agreed to pay tributes to Möngke Khan to spare his country. When Kublai Khan demanded full submission of the dynasty where Mongol darughachis were well received before,<ref>"The History of Yuan Dynasty", J.Bor, p.313, ''Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol empire'', p.581</ref> the relationship between two states deteriorated in 1264. After series of invasions in 1278-1288, the king of Đại Việt or Trần dynasty accepted Mongol [[suzerainty]]. By the time, each side had suffered from heavy losses because of large but ineffective wars.
*'''[[Champa]]'''.<ref name="autogenerated1" /> Although king Ve Indrawarman of Champa expressed his desire to accept the Yuan rule in 1278, his son and subjects ignored the submission. The Mongol forces lost in the country and their general was killed, however, they defeated all forces of Champa in open battles in 1283. The king of Champa started sending tributes two years later to avoid Mongol invasions.
*'''[[Khmer Empire]]'''.<ref name="autogenerated1" /> In 1278, a Mongol envoy was executed by the [[Khmer people|Khmer]] king. An envoy was sent again to demand submission when the Yuan army was besieging the fortress in Champa. 100 Mongol cavalries sent to Khmer after the imprisonment of the second envoy. They were ambushed and destroyed by the Khmers. However, the King of Khmer Empire asked a pardon and sent tribute in 1285 due to his war-like neighbours and Kublai Khan's rage.
*'''[[Sukhothai Kingdom]]''' and '''Chiangmai''' or '''Taiyo'''. When Kublai sent Mongol forces to protect his vassals in Burma, [[Thai people|Thai]] states including Sukhotai and Taiyo accepted Mongol supremacy. King [[Ram Khamhaeng the Great|Ramkhamhaeng]] and other Thai and Khmer leaders visited the Yuan court to show their loyalty several times.<ref>''The Empire of the Steppes'' by René Grousset, trans. N. Walford, p.291</ref>

===East and Central Asian vassals===
* The '''Kingdom of [[Goryeo]]'''. The [[Mongol invasions of Korea]] consisted of a series of campaigns by the Mongol Empire against Korea, then known as Goryeo, from 1231 to 1270. There were six major campaigns at tremendous cost to civilian lives throughout the Korean peninsula, ultimately resulting in Korea becoming a [[Korea under Yuan rule|semi-autonomous vassal state]] of the Mongol Yuan dynasty for approximately 80 years.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.koreanhistoryproject.org/Ket/C06/E0602.htm |title=Expanding the Realm |publisher=Koreanhistoryproject.org |date= |accessdate=2015-02-20}}</ref> The Mongol Empire and the Kingdom of Goryeo tied with marriages as Mongol princesses were married to Korean Kings, while Mongol Emperors took many Korean women as concubines. A Korean woman called the [[Empress Gi]] became an empress through her marriage with [[Ukhaantu Khan]], and her son, [[Biligtü Khan]] of the [[Northern Yuan dynasty]], became a Mongol Khan. King [[Chungnyeol of Goryeo]] married a daughter of Kubilai Khan, and marriages between Mongol and Korea continued for eighty years. The Goryeo dynasty survived under Mongolian influence until King Gongmin began to push Mongolian garrisons of the Yuan back starting in the 1350s. Goryeo was the lowest rank vassal of the Mongols, below the Karluks and Uighurs, because the Koreans surrendered last.
* The '''[[Kingdom of Qocho]]''', a Buddhist Uighur Kingdom. When the Mongols placed the Uighurs of the [[Kingdom of Qocho]] over the Koreans at the court the Korean King objected, then the Mongol Emperor Kublai Khan rebuked the Korean King, saying that the [[Kingdom of Qocho|Uighur King of Qocho]] was ranked higher than the Karluk Kara-Khanid ruler, who in turn was ranked higher than the Korean King, who was ranked last, because the Uighurs surrendered to the Mongols first, the Karluks surrendered after the Uighurs, and the Koreans surrendered last, and that the Uighurs surrendered peacefully without violently resisting.<ref>[{{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=sNpD5UKmkswC |page=247 }} ed. Rossabi 1983], p. 247.</ref><ref>[http://www.academia.edu/7542628/The_Semu_ren_in_the_Yuan_Empire_-_who_were_they Haw 2014], p. 4.</ref>
* The '''[[Karluks]]'''.
* The '''[[Dali Kingdom|Maharajah of Yunnan]]'''. King Duan Xingzhi of Dali was then enfeoffed as [[Maharaja]] (摩诃罗嵯) by the Yuan Emperor Kublai Khan, and the Dali Kingdom Duan royal family continued to hold the title of Maharaja in Yunnan as vassals to the Mongols. After the [[Ming dynasty]] conquered Yunnan from the Yuan, the Duan royals were shipped off to the Ming capital of Nanjing by the [[Hongwu Emperor]].

===Middle East vassals===
{{main|Franco-Mongol alliance}}
* The  '''[[Principality of Antioch]] and the [[County of Tripoli]]'''.<ref>Reuven Amitei Press Mamluk Ilkhanid war 1260-1280</ref> - The small crusader state paid annual tributes for many years. The closest thing to actual Frankish cooperation with Mongol military actions was the overlord-subject relationship between the Mongols and the Franks of Antioch and others. Mongols lost their vassal and ally [[Franks]] as the fall of [[Antioch]] in 1268 and [[Tripoli]] in 1289 to the Mamluks.
* The '''[[Empire of Trebizond]]'''- The [[Seljuks]] and the military forces of Trebizond were [[Battle of Köse Dağ|defeated by the Mongols in 1243]]. After that, [[Kaykhusraw II]], the Sultan of [[Iconium]] was compelled to pay tribute and supply annually horses, hunting dogs, and jewels. The emperor [[Manuel I of Trebizond]], realizing the impossibility of fighting the Mongols, made a speedy peace with them and, on condition of paying an annual tribute, became a Mongol vassal. The empire reached its greatest prosperity and had opportunity to export the produce of its own rich hinterland during the era of [[Ilkhan]]s. But with the decline of Mongol power in 1335, Trebizond suffered increasingly from Turkish attacks, civil wars, and domestic intrigues.<ref>''A History of the Byzantine Empire'' by Al. Vasilief, © 2007</ref>

===Tributary states===
*The '''indigenous people of Sakhalin'''. The Mongol forces made several attacks on [[Sakhalin]], beginning in 1264 and continuing until 1308.<ref>Mark Hudson ''Ruins of Identity'', p.226</ref> Economically, the conquest of new peoples provided further wealth for the tribute-based Yuan dynasty. The [[Nivkh people|Nivkhs]] and the [[Orok people|Oroks]] were subjugated by the Mongols. However, the [[Ainu people]] raided Mongol posts every year.<ref>Brett L. Walker ''The Conquest of Ainu Lands'', p.133</ref> The Ainus finally accepted Mongol supremacy in 1308.
*The  '''[[Byzantine Empire]]'''.<ref>Ринчен Хара-Даван: Чингис хан гений, Ж.Бор: Евразийн дипломат шашстир II боть</ref>  When an Egyptian diplomat was arrested by emperor [[Michael VIII Palaiologos]], Sultan [[Baibars]] insisted his ally [[Berke]] Khan to attack the Greek Empire. In the winter of 1265 [[Nogai Khan]] led a Mongol raid on Byzantine [[Thrace]] with his vassal Bulgaria. In the spring of 1265 he defeated the armies of Michael and freed the diplomat and former Seljuk sultan [[Kaykaus II]]. Instead of fighting, most of the Byzantines fled. Michael managed to escape with the assistance of Italian merchants. After this Thrace was plundered by Nogai's army, and the Byzantine emperor signed a treaty with Berke of the [[Golden Horde]], giving his daughter [[Euphrosyne Palaiologina (daughter of Michael VIII)|Euphrosyne]] in marriage to Nogai. Michael also sent much valuable fabric to the Golden Horde as a tribute thereafter. But after that event, the imperial court of [[Byzantium]] developed and retained a policy of good relations with both the Golden Horde and the Ilkhanate, which became allies against intrusion of the Mamluks of Egypt and the Ghazi emirs of Anatolia.
* '''Small states of [[Malay Peninsula]]'''. Kublai sent surrounding nations his envoys to demand their submission in 1270-1280. Most of states in [[Indo-China]] and Malay accepted the demand. According to Marco Polo, those subjects sent tribute on to the Mongol court, including [[elephant]]s, [[rhinoceros]]es, jewels and a tooth of [[Buddha]]. One notable scholar identified that these acts of submission were more ceremonial in some regard. During the [[Mongol invasion of Java]] in 1293, small states of Malay and [[Sumatra]] submitted and sent envoys or hostages to them. [[Austronesian peoples|Native people]] of modern [[Taiwan]] and [[Philippines]] helped the Mongol armada but they were never conquered.

==See also==
* [[Mongol invasions and conquests]]
* [[Division of the Mongol Empire]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Mongol Empire}}

[[Category:Mongol Empire]]