Mughal Empire sayfasının kaynağını görüntüle

{{redirect|Moghul|the village in Iran|Moghul, Iran}}
{{distinguish|Mongol Empire}}
{{pp-semi-indef}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2015}}
{{Infobox former country
|native_name = <big>{{lang|fa|گورکانیان}}</big> <small>([[Persian language|Persian]])</small><br />''Gūrkāniyān''<br />{{lang|ur|{{Nastaliq|مغلیہ سلطنت}}}} <small>([[Urdu]])</small><br />''{{transl|ur|ALA-LC|Mug̱liyah Salṭanat}}''
|conventional_long_name = Mughal Empire
|common_name = Mughal Empire
|continent = Asia
|religion = {{plainlist|
* [[Islam]] <small>(1526–1857)</small>
* [[Din-e Ilahi]] <small>(1582–1605)</small>}}
|region = South Asia
|era = Early modern
|status = Empire
|government_type = [[Absolute monarchy]], [[unitary state]] with [[federation|federal structure]]
|life_span = {{plainlist|
* 1526–1540
* 1555–1857}}
|year_start = 1526
|year_end = 1857
|event_start = [[First Battle of Panipat]]
|date_start = 21 April
|event_end = [[Siege of Delhi]]
|date_end = 21 September
|event1 = Empire interrupted by [[Sur Empire]]
|date_event1 = 1540–1555
|event2 = Death of [[Aurangzeb]]
|date_event2 = 3 March 1707
|p1 = Delhi Sultanate
|flag_p1 =Delhi Sultanate Flag (catalan atlas).png
|p2 = Rajput states
|flag_p2 = Mewar.svg
|p3 = Bengal Sultanate
|flag_p3 = 
| border_p2 = no
|s1 = Maratha Empire
|flag_s1 = Flag of the Maratha Empire.svg
| border_s1 = no
|s2 = Durrani Empire
|flag_s2 = Flag of the Abdali Afghan Tribes.jpeg
| border_s2 = no
|s3 = Sikh Confederacy
|flag_s3 = Kattar Dhal Talwar.jpg
|s4 = Company rule in India
|flag_s4 = Flag of the British East India Company (1801).svg
| image_coat             =
| symbol                 = Imperial Seal of the Mongols
|coat_alt = Mughal
|image_map = Mughal1700.png
|image_map_caption = The empire at its greatest extent, in the early 18th century
|image_map_alt = Mughal
|capital = {{plainlist|
* [[Agra]] <small>(1526–1540; 1555–1571)</small>
* [[Fatehpur Sikri]] <small>(1571–1585)</small>
* [[Lahore]] <small>(May 1586–1598)</small>
* [[Agra]] <small>(1598–1648)</small>
* [[Shahjahanabad]], [[Delhi]] <small>(1648–1857)</small>}}
|common_languages = {{plainlist|
* [[Persian language|Persian]] <small>(official and court language)</small><ref name=Conan>{{cite book|last=Conan|first=Michel|title=Middle East Garden Traditions: Unity and Diversity: Questions, Methods and Resources in a Multicultural Perspective|volume= Volume 31|year=2007|publisher=Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection|location=Washington, D.C.|isbn=978-0-88402-329-6|page=235}}</ref>
* [[Chagatai language|Chagatai Turkic]] <small>(only initially)</small>
* [[Urdu]] <small>(spoken)</small>}}
|currency = Rupee<ref>{{cite book|last=Richards|first=James|title=The Mughal Empire|pages=73–74|publisher=Cambridge University Press|date=26 January 1996|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HHyVh29gy4QC&pg=PA74&lpg=PA74&dq=currency+of+the+mughal+empire&source=bl&ots=5sfM5B_The&sig=EG8tBOw1afnYoYeoDwwVez17MVM&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi11Z7P47LKAhUH8GMKHYdBBikQ6AEIRTAH#v=onepage&q=currency%20of%20the%20mughal%20empire&f=false}}</ref>
|leader1 = [[Babur]] <small>(first)</small>
|leader2 = [[Bahadur Shah II]] <small>(last)</small>
|year_leader1 = 1526–1530
|year_leader2 = 1837–1857
|title_leader = [[Mughal emperors|Emperor]]<ref>The title (Mirza) descends to all the sons of the family, without exception. In the Royal family it is placed after the name instead of before it, thus, Abbas Mirza and Hosfiein Mirza. Mirza is a civil title, and Khan is a military one. The title of Khan is creative, but not hereditary. ''p. 601 Monthly magazine and British register, [https://books.google.com/books?id=dyMAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA601 Volume 34 Publisher Printed for Sir Richard Phillips], 1812 Original from Harvard University''</ref>
|stat_year1 = 1690<ref>{{cite journal|date=September 1997|title=Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia|journal=[[International Studies Quarterly]]|volume=41|issue=3|page=500|doi=10.1111/0020-8833.00053|author=Rein Taagepera|authorlink=Rein Taagepera|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/2600793|accessdate=14 September 2016}}</ref>
|stat_area1 = 4000000
|stat_year2 = 1650<ref>{{cite book |author1=Colin McEvedy |author-link1=Colin McEvedy |author2=Richard Jones |date=1978 |title=Atlas of World Population History |publisher=Facts on File |location=New York |page=148}}</ref>
|stat_pop2 = 145000000
|today = {{plainlist|
* {{flag|Afghanistan}}
* {{flag|Bangladesh}}
* {{flag|India}}
* {{flag|Pakistan}}}}
}}
{{HistoryOfSouthAsia}}

The '''Mughal Empire''' ({{Lang-ur|{{Nastaliq|مغلیہ سلطنت}}|translit=Mughliyah Salṭanat}})<ref name="Balfour">{{cite book|last=Balfour|first=E.G.|authorlink=Edward Balfour|title=Encyclopaedia Asiatica: Comprising Indian-subcontinent, Eastern and Southern Asia|year=1976|publisher=Cosmo Publications|isbn=978-81-7020-325-4|location=New Delhi|at=S. 460, S. 488, S. 897}}</ref> or '''Mogul Empire''',<ref name="persianatemogul">{{cite book|title=God and Logic in Islam: The Caliphate of Reason|author=John Walbridge|page=165|quote=Persianate Mogul Empire.}}</ref> self-designated as '''Gurkani''' ({{lang-fa|گورکانیان}}, ''Gūrkāniyān'', meaning "son-in-law"),<ref name="Thackston">{{cite book|title=The [[Baburnama]]: Memoirs of Babur, Prince and Emperor|publisher=[[Modern Library]]|isbn=978-0-375-76137-9|author=Zahir ud-Din Mohammad|authorlink=Babur|editor=Thackston, Wheeler M.|editor-link=Wheeler Thackston|location=New York|page=xlvi|date=10 September 2002|quote=In India the dynasty always called itself Gurkani, after Temür's title Gurkân, the Persianized form of the Mongolian {{lang|mn-Latn|''kürägän''}}, 'son-in-law,' a title he assumed after his marriage to a Genghisid princess.}}</ref> was an empire in the [[Indian subcontinent]], established and ruled by a [[Muslim]] [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] [[dynasty]] of [[Chagatai Khanate|Chagatai]] [[Turco-Mongol]] origin from Central Asia.<ref name="Richards1995">{{citation |last=Richards |first=John F. |title=The Mughal Empire |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HHyVh29gy4QC |year=1995 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=6 |isbn=978-0-521-56603-2}}</ref><ref name="Schimmel2004">{{citation |last=Schimmel |first=Annemarie |title=The Empire of the Great Mughals: History, Art and Culture |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N7sewQQzOHUC |year=2004 |publisher=Reaktion Books |page=22 |isbn=978-1-86189-185-3}}</ref><ref name="Balabanlilar2012">{{citation |last=Balabanlilar |first=Lisa |title=Imperial Identity in Mughal Empire: Memory and Dynastic Politics in Early Modern Central Asia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7PS6PrH3rtkC |date=15 January 2012 |publisher=I.B.Tauris |page=2 |isbn=978-1-84885-726-1}}</ref> The dynasty, though ethnically Turco-Mongol, was [[Persianate society|Persianate]] in terms of culture.<ref name="persianatemogul" /><ref>{{cite book|title=Britain and the Persian Gulf: 1795–1880|author=John Barrett Kelly|page=473}}</ref>

The Mughal empire extended over large parts of the Indian subcontinent and [[Afghanistan]]. The empire at its peak, was the [[List of largest empires that existed in India|second largest to have existed in the Indian subcontinent]], spanning 4 million square kilometres at its zenith, after the [[Maurya Empire]], which spanned 5 million square kilometres.

The beginning of the empire is conventionally dated to the victory by its founder [[Babur]] over [[Ibrahim Lodi]], the last ruler of the [[Delhi Sultanate]], in the [[First Battle of Panipat]] (1526). The [[Mughal emperors]] were Central Asian Turco-Mongols belonging to the [[Timurid dynasty]], who claimed direct descent from both [[Genghis Khan]] (founder of the [[Mongol Empire]], through his son [[Chagatai Khan]]) and [[Timur]] (Turco-Mongol conqueror who founded the [[Timurid Empire]]). During the reign of [[Humayun]], the successor of Babur, the empire was briefly interrupted by the [[Sur Empire]]. The "classic period" of the Mughal Empire started in 1556 with the ascension of [[Akbar|Akbar the Great]] to the throne. Under the rule of Akbar and his son [[Jahangir]], the region enjoyed economic progress as well as religious harmony, and the monarchs were interested in local religious and cultural traditions. Akbar was a successful warrior who also forged alliances with several Hindu [[Rajput]] kingdoms. Some [[Rajput]] kingdoms continued to pose a significant threat to the Mughal dominance of northwestern India, but most of them were subdued by Akbar. All [[Mughal emperors]] were [[Muslim]]s; while Akbar was Muslim most of his life, he propounded a syncretic religion in the latter part of his life called [[Deen-i-Ilahi]], as recorded in historical books like ''[[Ain-e-Akbari]]'' and ''[[Dabestan-e Mazaheb]]''.<ref>{{cite book |first=Makhan Lal |last=Roy Choudhury |title=The Din-i-Ilahi:Or, The Religion of Akbar}}</ref>

The Mughal Empire did not try to intervene in the local societies during most of its existence, but rather balanced and pacified them through new administrative practices{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2008|p = 115}}{{sfn|Robb|2001|pp = 90–91}} and diverse and inclusive ruling elites,{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p = 17}} leading to more systematic, centralised, and uniform rule.{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2008|p = 152}} Traditional and newly coherent social groups in northern and western India, such as the [[Maratha Empire|Marathas]], the [[Rajputs]], the [[Pashtuns]], the [[Hindu Jats]] and the [[Khalsa|Sikhs]], gained military and governing ambitions during Mughal rule, which, through collaboration or adversity, gave them both recognition and military experience.<ref name="AsherTalbot2006">{{cite book | author1=Catherine Ella Blanshard Asher | author2=Cynthia Talbot | title=India before Europe | year= 2006 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=978-0-521-80904-7 | page=265}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Burjor Avari |title=Islamic Civilization in South Asia: A History of Muslim Power and Presence in the Indian Subcontinent |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hGHpVtQ8eKoC&pg=PA131 |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge |pages=131– |isbn=978-0-415-58061-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Erinn Banting |date=2003 |title=Afghanistan: The people |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fl8cd15sc7wC&pg=PA9 |publisher=Crabtree Publishing Company |pages=9– |isbn=978-0-7787-9336-6}}</ref>{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|pp = 23–24}}

The reign of [[Shah Jahan]], the fifth emperor, between 1628 and 1658 was the golden age of [[Mughal architecture]]. He erected several large monuments, the best known of which is the [[Taj Mahal]] at [[Agra]], as well as the [[Moti Masjid, Agra]], the [[Red Fort]], the [[Jama Masjid, Delhi]], and the [[Lahore Fort]]. The Mughal Empire reached the zenith of its territorial expanse during the reign of [[Aurangzeb]] and also started its terminal decline in his reign due to [[Maratha Empire|Maratha]] military resurgence under [[Shivaji Bhosale]]. During his lifetime, victories in the south expanded the Mughal Empire to more than 3.2&nbsp;million square kilometres (1.2&nbsp;million square miles), ruling over more than 150 million subjects, nearly one quarter of the world's population at the time, with a combined GDP of over $90&nbsp;billion.<ref name="Richards1993">{{cite book |last=Richards |first=John F. |authorlink=John F. Richards |date=18 March 1993 |title=The Mughal Empire |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-25119-8 |doi=10.2277/0521251192 |editor1-first=Gordon |editor1-last=Johnson |editor1-link=Gordon Johnson (historian)|editor2-first=C. A. |editor2-last=Bayly |editor2-link=Christopher Alan Bayly |series=The New Cambridge history of India: 1.5 |volume=I. The Mughals and their Contemporaries |location=Cambridge |pages=1, 190}}</ref><ref name="Warrior Empire">{{cite video | url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P-Ygz9VbiE0 | title=Warrior Empire: The Mughals | publisher=[[The History Channel]] | date=31 October 2006 | medium=DVD}}</ref>

By the mid-18th century, the [[Maratha Confederacy|Marathas]] had routed Mughal armies and won over several Mughal provinces from the [[Punjab region|Punjab]] to [[Bengal]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Sailendra Nath Sen |date=2010 |title=An Advanced History of Modern India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bXWiACEwPR8C&pg=PA1941-IA82 |publisher=Macmillan India |page=Introduction 14 |isbn=978-0-230-32885-3}}</ref> Internal dissatisfaction arose due to the weakness of the empire's administrative and economic systems, leading to its break-up and declarations of independence of its former provinces by the [[Nawab of Bengal]], the [[Nawab of Awadh]], the [[Nizam of Hyderabad]] and other small states. In 1739, the Mughals were crushingly defeated in the [[Battle of Karnal]] by the forces of [[Nader Shah]], the founder of the [[Afsharid dynasty]] in Persia, and Delhi was [[Sack of Delhi|sacked and looted]], drastically accelerating their decline. During the following century Mughal power had become severely limited, and the last emperor, [[Bahadur Shah II]], had authority over only the city of [[Shahjahanabad]]. He issued a ''[[firman]]'' supporting the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]] and following the defeat was therefore tried by the [[British East India Company]] for treason, imprisoned and exiled to [[Rangoon]].<ref>{{cite book |author=John Capper |author-link=John Capper |date=1918 |title=Delhi, the Capital of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aqqBPS1TDUgC&pg=PA28 |publisher=Asian Educational Services |location=New Delhi |pages=28–29 |isbn=978-81-206-1282-2}}</ref> The last remnants of the empire were formally taken over by the British, and the [[Government of India Act 1858]] let the [[British Crown]] formally assume direct control of India in the form of the new [[British Raj]].

== Etymology ==
Contemporaries referred to the empire founded by [[Babur]] as the [[Timurid dynasty|Timurid]] empire,<ref name="MSA">{{cite book
| publisher = Routledge
| page = 28|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qMJIuHL9ksAC&pg=PA28|isbn=978-0-203-71253-5
| last =  Bose
| first =  Sugata Bose
|author2=Ayesha Jalal
| title = Modern South Asia: History, Culture, Political Economy
| year = 2004
}}</ref> which reflected the heritage of his dynasty, and this was the term preferred by the Mughals themselves.<ref name="Avari">{{cite book
| publisher = Routledge
| page = 83|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hGHpVtQ8eKoC&pg=PA83|isbn=978-0-415-58061-8
| last =  Avari
| first =  Burjor
| title = Islamic Civilization in South Asia: A History of Muslim Power and Presence in the Indian Subcontinent
| year = 2004
}}</ref> Another name was [[Hindustan]], which was documented in the [[Ain-i-Akbari]], and which has been described as the closest to an official name for the empire.<ref name="Vanina">{{cite book
| publisher = Primus Books
| page = 47|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yriGbWNAF5EC&pg=PA47|isbn=978-93-80607-19-1
| last =  Vanina
| first =  Eugenia
| title = Medieval Indian Mindscapes: Space, Time, Society, Man
| year = 2012
}}</ref> In the west, the term "[[Mughal emperors|Mughal]]" was used for the emperor, and by extension, the empire as a whole.<ref name="Fontana">{{cite book
| publisher = Rowman & Littlefield Publishers
| page = 32|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MVZU1sAQ8H4C&pg=PA32|isbn=978-1-4422-0588-8
| last =  Fontana
| first =  Michela
| title = Matteo Ricci: A Jesuit in the Ming Court
| year = 2011
}}</ref> The use of Mughal derived from the Arabic and Persian corruption of [[Mongols|Mongol]], and it emphasised the Mongol origins of the Timurid dynasty.<ref name="Hodgson">{{cite book
| publisher = University of Chicago Press
| page = 62|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=COOGFSH_jUkC&pg=PA62|isbn=978-0-226-34688-5
| last =  Dodgson
| first =  Marshall G. S. islamologists
| title = The Venture of Islam, Volume 3: The Gunpowder Empires and Modern Times, Volume 3
| year = 2009
}}</ref> The term gained currency during the 19th century, but remains disputed by [[Indologists]].<ref name="RA">{{cite book
| publisher = Routledge
| page = 104|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IVhUAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA104|isbn=978-1-136-84377-8
| last =  Huskin
| first =  Frans Husken
|author2=Dick van der Meij
| title = Reading Asia: New Research in Asian Studies
| year = 2004
}}</ref> Similar terms had been used to refer to the empire, including "Mogul" and "Moghul".<ref name="persianatemogul" /><ref>Empire of the Moghul: Raiders From the North, by Alex Rutherford</ref> Nevertheless, Babur's ancestors were sharply distinguished from the classical Mongols insofar as they were oriented towards [[Persian culture|Persian]] rather than [[Turco-Mongol]] culture.<ref name="Canfield">{{cite book
| publisher = Cambridge University Press, 2002
| page = 20|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g3JhKNSk8tQC&pg=PA20|isbn=978-0-521-52291-5
| last =  Canfield
| first =  Robert L.
| title = Turko-Persia in Historical Perspective
| year = 2002
}}</ref>

== History ==
[[File:Emperor babur.jpg|thumb|Babur, founder of the Mughal Empire]]

The Mughal Empire was founded by [[Babur]], a Central Asian ruler who was descended from the Turco-Mongol conqueror [[Timur]] (the founder of the [[Timurid Empire]]) on his father's side and from [[Chagatai Khan|Chagatai]], the second son of the Mongol ruler [[Genghis Khan]], on his mother's side.<ref name="Berndl">{{cite book
| publisher = University of Michigan
| pages = 318–320|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cn0RAQAAMAAJ|isbn=978-0-521-52291-5
| last =  Berndl
| first =   Klaus
| title = National Geographic visual history of the world
| year = 2005
}}</ref> Ousted from his ancestral domains in Central Asia, Babur turned to India to satisfy his ambitions. He established himself in [[Kabul]] and then pushed steadily southward into India from [[Afghanistan]] through the [[Khyber Pass]].<ref name="Berndl" /> Babur's forces occupied much of northern India after his victory at [[First Battle of Panipat|Panipat]] in 1526.<ref name="Berndl" /> The preoccupation with wars and military campaigns, however, did not allow the new emperor to consolidate the gains he had made in India.<ref name="Berndl" /> The instability of the empire became evident under his son, [[Humayun]], who was driven out of India and into Persia by rebels.<ref name="Berndl" /> Humayun's exile in Persia established diplomatic ties between the [[Safavid Dynasty|Safavid]] and Mughal Courts, and led to increasing Persian cultural influence in the Mughal Empire. The restoration of Mughal rule began after Humayun's triumphant return from Persia in 1555, but he died from a fatal accident shortly afterwards.<ref name="Berndl" /> Humayun's son, [[Akbar]], succeeded to the throne under a regent, [[Bairam Khan]], who helped consolidate the Mughal Empire in India.<ref name="Berndl" />

Through warfare and diplomacy, Akbar was able to extend the empire in all directions and controlled almost the entire Indian subcontinent north of the [[Godavari River]]. He created a new class of nobility loyal to him from the military aristocracy of India's social groups, implemented a modern government, and supported cultural developments.<ref name="Berndl" /> At the same time, Akbar intensified trade with European trading companies. India developed a strong and stable economy, leading to commercial expansion and economic development. Akbar allowed free expression of religion, and attempted to resolve socio-political and cultural differences in his empire by establishing a new religion, [[Din-i-Ilahi]], with strong characteristics of a ruler cult.<ref name="Berndl" /> He left his successors an internally stable state, which was in the midst of its golden age, but before long signs of political weakness would emerge.<ref name="Berndl" /> Akbar's son, [[Jahangir]], ruled the empire at its peak, but he was addicted to opium, neglected the affairs of the state, and came under the influence of rival court cliques.<ref name="Berndl" /> During the reign of Jahangir's son, [[Shah Jahan]], the culture and splendour of the luxurious Mughal court reached its zenith as exemplified by the [[Taj Mahal]].<ref name="Berndl" /> The maintenance of the court, at this time, began to cost more than the revenue.<ref name="Berndl" />

[[File:Jesuits at Akbar's court.jpg|thumb|left|Akbar holds a religious assembly of different faiths in the [[Ibadat Khana]] in Fatehpur Sikri.]]

Shah Jahan's eldest son, the liberal [[Dara Shikoh]], became regent in 1658, as a result of his father's illness. However, a younger son, [[Aurangzeb]], allied with the Islamic orthodoxy against his brother, who championed a syncretistic Hindu-Muslim culture, and ascended to the throne. Aurangzeb defeated Dara in 1659 and had him executed.<ref name="Berndl" /> Although Shah Jahan fully recovered from his illness, Aurangzeb declared him incompetent to rule and had him imprisoned. During Aurangzeb's reign, the empire gained political strength once more, but his religious conservatism and intolerance undermined the stability of Mughal society.<ref name="Berndl" /> Aurangzeb expanded the empire to include almost the whole of South Asia, but at his death in 1707, many parts of the empire were in open revolt.<ref name="Berndl" /> Aurangzeb's son, [[Bahadur Shah I|Shah Alam]], repealed the religious policies of his father, and attempted to reform the administration. However, after his death in 1712, the Mughal dynasty sank into chaos and violent feuds. In 1719 alone, four emperors successively ascended the throne.<ref name="Berndl" />

During the reign of [[Muhammad Shah]], the empire began to break up, and vast tracts of central India passed from Mughal to [[Maratha Empire|Maratha]] hands. The far-off [[Nadir Shah's invasion of India|Indian campaign]] of [[Nadir Shah]], who had priorly reestablished Iranian [[suzerainty]] over most of West Asia, the Caucasus, and Central Asia, culminated with the [[Sack of Delhi]] and shattered the remnants of Mughal power and prestige.<ref name="Berndl" /> Many of the empire's elites now sought to control their own affairs, and broke away to form independent kingdoms.<ref name="Berndl" /> But, according to [[Sugata Bose]] and [[Ayesha Jalal]], the Mughal Emperor, however, continued to be the highest manifestation of sovereignty. Not only the Muslim gentry, but the Maratha, Hindu, and Sikh leaders took part in ceremonial acknowledgements of the emperor as the sovereign of India.<ref name="MSA2">{{cite book
| publisher = Routledge
| page = 41|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qMJIuHL9ksAC&pg=PA41|isbn=978-0-203-71253-5
| last =  Bose
| first =  Sugata Bose
|author2=Ayesha Jalal
| title = Modern South Asia: History, Culture, Political Economy
| year = 2004
}}</ref>

The Mughal Emperor [[Shah Alam II]] made futile attempts to reverse the Mughal decline, and ultimately had to seek the protection of outside powers i.e. from the Emir of Afghanistan, Ahmed Shah Abdali, which led to the Third Battle of Panipat between the Maratha Empire and the Afghans led by Abdali in 1761. In 1771, the Marathas recaptured Delhi from Afghan control and in 1784 they officially became the protectors of the emperor in Delhi,<ref name="Rathod 1994 8">N. G. Rathod, ''The Great Maratha Mahadaji Scindia'', (Sarup & Sons, 1994),8:[https://books.google.com/books?id=uPq640stHJ0C&pg=PA8&lpg=PA8&dq=1771+scindia&source=bl&ots=Ohxv9jrPpo&sig=gdLcPTomT2FOmazdsOmytJmiiFE&hl=en&sa=X&ei=JF2_T_PEF8PYrQfPkNW2CQ&ved=0CE4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=1771%20scindia&f=false]</ref> a state of affairs that continued further until after the [[Third Anglo-Maratha War]]. Thereafter, the [[British East India Company]] became the protectors of the Mughal dynasty in Delhi.<ref name="MSA2" /> The British East India [[Company rule in India|company]] took control of the former Mughal province of Bengal-Bihar in 1793 after it abolished local rule (Nizamat) that lasted until 1858, marking the beginning of British colonial era over the Indian Subcontinent. By 1857 a considerable part of former Mughal India was under the East India's company's control. After a crushing defeat in the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857|war of 1857–1858]] which he nominally led, the last Mughal, [[Bahadur Shah Zafar]], was deposed by the British [[East India Company]] and exiled in 1858. Through the [[Government of India Act 1858]] the [[British Crown]] assumed direct control of East India company held territories in India in the form of the new [[British Raj]]. In 1876 the British Queen Victoria assumed the title of [[Empress of India]].

=== Causes of decline ===
[[File:Officer of the Mughal Army, c.1585 (colour litho).jpg|thumb|Mughal matchlock rifle]]

Historians have offered numerous explanations for the rapid collapse of the Mughal Empire between 1707 and 1720, after a century of growth and prosperity. In fiscal terms the throne lost the revenues needed to pay its chief officers, the emirs (nobles) and their entourages. The emperor lost authority, as the widely scattered imperial officers lost confidence in the central authorities, and made their own deals with local men of influence. The imperial army, bogged down in long, futile wars against the more aggressive [[Maratha Empire|Marathas]] lost its fighting spirit. Finally came a series of violent political feuds over control of the throne. After the execution of emperor Farrukhsiyar in 1719, local Mughal successor states took power in region after region.<ref>J. F. Richards, "Mughal State Finance and the Premodern World Economy", ''Comparative Studies in Society and History'', (1981) 23#2 pp. 285–308 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/178737 in JSTOR]</ref>

Contemporary chroniclers bewailed the decay they witnessed, a theme picked up by the first British historians who wanted to underscore the need for a British-led rejuvenation.<ref>{{cite book|author=Sir William Wilson Hunter|title=Imperial gazetteer of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QYlDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA107|year=1908|publisher=Clarendon Press|page=107}}</ref>

====Modern views on the decline====
Since the 1970s historians have taken multiple approaches to the decline, with little consensus on which factor was dominant. The psychological interpretations emphasise depravity in high places, excessive luxury, and increasingly narrow views that left the rulers unprepared for an external challenge. A Marxist school (led by [[Irfan Habib]] and based at [[Aligarh Muslim University]]) emphasises excessive exploitation of the peasantry by the rich, which stripped away the will and the means to support the regime.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Habib |first=Irfan |date=March 1969 |title=Potentialities of Capitalistic Development in the Economy of Mughal India |journal=Journal of Economic History |publisher=Cambridge University Press |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=32–78 |jstor=2115498}}</ref> Karen Leonard has focused on the failure of the regime to work with Hindu bankers, whose financial support was increasingly needed; the bankers then helped the Maratha and the British.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Leonard |first=Karen |date=April 1979 |title=The 'Great Firm' Theory of the Decline of the Mughal Empire |journal=Comparative Studies in Society and History |publisher=Cambridge University Press |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=151–167 |jstor=178414}}</ref> In a religious interpretation, some scholars argue that the Hindu powers revolted against the rule of a Muslim dynasty.<ref>Robert C. Hallissey, ''The Rajput Rebellion against Aurangzib'' (U. of Missouri Press, 1977)</ref> Finally, other scholars argue that the very prosperity of the Empire inspired the provinces to achieve a high degree of independence, thus weakening the imperial court.<ref>{{cite book |author=Claude Markovits |date=2004 |origyear=First published 1994 as ''Histoire de l'Inde Moderne'' |title=A History of Modern India, 1480–1950 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uzOmy2y0Zh4C&pg=PA172 |pages=172–3 |isbn=978-1-84331-004-4}}</ref>

== List of Mughal emperors ==
{{Main article|Mughal emperors}}

{| style="Margin: 1em auto 1em auto" class="wikitable"
|-
! Emperor !! Birth !! Reign Period !! Death !! Notes
|-
| style="width:125px;" | [[Babur]] || 23 February 1483 || 1526–1530 || 30 December 1530 || Was a direct descendant of [[Genghis Khan]] through his mother and was descendant of [[Timur]] through his father. Founded the Mughal Empire after his victories at the [[First Battle of Panipat]] (1526), the [[Battle of Khanwa]] (1527), and the Battle of Ghagra (1529).<ref name="sen2">{{Cite book |last=Sen |first=Sailendra |title=A Textbook of Medieval Indian History |publisher=Primus Books |year=2013 |isbn=978-93-80607-34-4 |pages=147–151}}</ref>
|-
| [[Humayun]] || 6 March 1508 || 1530–1540 || Jan 1556 || Reign interrupted by [[Sur Empire]] after the Battle of Kanauj (1540).<ref name="sen1">{{Cite book |last=Sen |first=Sailendra |title=A Textbook of Medieval Indian History |publisher=Primus Books |year=2013 |isbn=978-93-80607-34-4 |pages=152–155}}</ref> Young and inexperienced at ascension led to him being regarded as a less effective ruler than [[Sher Shah Suri]].
|- style="background:silver"
| [[Sher Shah Suri]] || 1472 || 1540–1545 || May 1545 || Deposed Humayun and led the Sur Empire.
|- style="background:silver"
| [[Islam Shah Suri]] || c. 1500 || 1545–1554 || 1554 || 2nd and last ruler of the Sur Empire, claims of sons Sikandar and Adil Shah were eliminated by Humayun's restoration.
|-
| [[Humayun]] || 6 March 1508 || 1555–1556 || Jan 1556 || Restored rule was more unified and effective than initial reign of 1530–1540; left unified empire for his son, [[Akbar]].
|- style="background:silver"
| [[Hemachandra Vikramaditya]] || Unknown || 1556|| 1556 || After defeating Akbar's Mughal forces in October 1556, [[Hemu]] declared himself the  ''[[Samrat]]''(emperor) and assumed the title of [[Vikramaditya (disambiguation)|Vikramaditya]], albeit for a short period of time. He was later defeated by [[Akbar]] in the [[Second Battle of Panipat]] in November 1556.
|-
| [[Akbar]] || 14 November 1542 || 1556–1605 || 27 October 1605 || He and [[Bairam Khan]] defeated [[Hemu]] during the [[Second Battle of Panipat]] and later won famous victories during the [[Siege of Chittorgarh]] and the [[Siege of Ranthambore]]; He greatly expanded the Empire and is regarded as the most illustrious ruler of the Mughal Empire as he set up the empire's various institutions; he married [[Mariam-uz-Zamani]], a Rajput princess. One of his most famous construction marvels was the [[Lahore Fort]].
|-
| [[Jahangir]] || Oct 1569 || 1605–1627 || 1627 || Jahangir set the precedent for sons rebelling against their emperor fathers. Opened first relations with the [[British East India Company]]. Reportedly was an alcoholic, and his wife Empress [[Nur Jahan|Noor Jahan]] became the real power behind the throne and competently ruled in his place.
|-
| [[Shah Jahan]]|| 5 January 1592 || 1627–1658 || 1666 || Under him, Mughal art and architecture reached their zenith; constructed the [[Taj Mahal]], [[Jama Masjid, Delhi|Jama Masjid]], [[Red Fort]], [[Tomb of Jahangir|Jahangir mausoleum]], and [[Shalimar Gardens (Lahore)|Shalimar Gardens]] in [[Lahore]]. Deposed by his son Aurangzeb.
|-
| [[Aurangzeb]] || 21 October 1618 || 1658–1707 || 3 March 1707 || He reinterpreted [[Sharia|Islamic law]] and presented the [[Fatawa-e-Alamgiri]]; he captured the diamond mines of the [[Sultanate of Golconda]]; he spent the major part of his last 27 years in the [[Maratha War of Independence|war]] with the [[Maratha Kingdom]]; at its zenith, his conquests expanded the empire to its greatest extent; the over-stretched empire was controlled by [[Mansabdar]]s, and faced challenges after his death. He is known to have transcribed copies of the [[Qur'an]] using his own styles of [[calligraphy]]. He died during a campaign against the rising [[Maratha Empire|Maratha]]s in the [[Deccan]].
|-
| [[Bahadur Shah I]] || 14 October 1643 || 1707–1712 || Feb 1712 || First of the Mughal emperors to preside over an empire ravaged by uncontrollable revolts. After his reign, the empire went into steady decline due to the lack of leadership qualities among his immediate successors.
|-
| [[Jahandar Shah]] || 1664 || 1712–1713 || Feb 1713 || Was an unpopular incompetent titular figurehead;
|-
| [[Furrukhsiyar]] || 1683 || 1713–1719 || 1719 || His reign marked the ascendancy of the manipulative [[Syed Brothers]], execution of the rebellious [[Banda Singh Bahadur|Banda]]. In 1717 he granted a [[firman (decree)|Firman]] to the [[English East India Company]] granting them duty-free trading rights in [[Bengal]]. The Firman was repudiated by the notable [[Murshid Quli Khan]] the Mughal appointed ruler of Bengal.
|-
| [[Rafi Ul-Darjat]] || Unknown || 1719 || 1719 || &nbsp;
|-
| [[Rafi Ud-Daulat]]|| Unknown || 1719 || 1719 || &nbsp;
|-
| [[Nikusiyar]] || Unknown || 1719 || 1743 || &nbsp;
|-
| [[Muhammad Ibrahim (Mughal emperor)|Muhammad Ibrahim]] || Unknown || 1720 || 1744 || &nbsp;
|-
| [[Muhammad Shah]] || 1702 || 1719–1720, 1720–1748 || 1748 || Got rid of the [[Syed Brothers]]. Tried to counter the emergence of the [[Maratha]]s but his empire disintegrated. Suffered the invasion of [[Nadir-Shah]] of Persia in 1739.<ref name="sen">{{cite book |title= History Modern India |author= S. N. Sen |publisher= New Age International |pages=11–13, 41–43 |year= 2006 |isbn= 81-224-1774-4 }}</ref>
|-
| [[Ahmad Shah Bahadur]] || 1725 || 1748–54 || 1775 ||
|-
| [[Alamgir II]] || 1699 || 1754–1759 || 1759 || He was murdered by the [[Vizier]] [[Ghazi ud-Din Khan Feroze Jung III|Imad-ul-Mulk]] and [[Maratha]] associate [[Sadashivrao Bhau]].
|-
| [[Shah Jahan III]] || Unknown || In 1759 || 1772 || Was ordained to the imperial throne as a result of the intricacies in Delhi with the help of [[Ghazi ud-Din Khan Feroze Jung III|Imad-ul-Mulk]]. He was later deposed by Maratha Sardars.<ref name="books.google.co.in">{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d1wUgKKzawoC&pg=PA140&lpg=PA140&dq=maratha+sardar+deposed+Shah+Jahan+III&source=bl&ots=HLT-i48i0f&sig=AnrgAYgghJMUtXpcqjdsKtQnZA8&hl=en&sa=X&ei=H6MbVaPPLcSVuATNu4DIAg&ved=0CCMQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=maratha%20sardar%20deposed%20Shah%20Jahan%20III&f=false|title=Advanced Study in the History of Modern India 1707–1813|publisher=|p=140}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4j_VLlGqVSoC&pg=PA767&dq=mirza+jawan+bakht&hl=en&sa=X&ei=cuGdT4GhCeaA4gTuoYiqDg&ved=0CFQQ6AEwBw#v=onepage&q=mirza%20jawan%20bakht&f=false |title=Mughal Empire in India: A Systematic Study Including Source Material |volume= 3|page= 765 |author= S.R. Sharma}}</ref>
|-
| [[Shah Alam II]] || 1728 || 1759–1806 || 1806 || He was proclaimed as Mughal Emperor by the Marathas.<ref name="books.google.co.in"/> Later, he was again recognised as the [[Mughal Emperor]] by [[Ahmad Shah Durrani]] after the [[Third Battle of Panipat]] in 1761.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4j_VLlGqVSoC&pg=PA767&dq=mirza+jawan+bakht&hl=en&sa=X&ei=cuGdT4GhCeaA4gTuoYiqDg&ved=0CFQQ6AEwBw#v=onepage&q=mirza%20jawan%20bakht&f=false |title=Mughal Empire in India: A Systematic Study Including Source Material |volume= 3|page= 767 |author= S.R. Sharma}}</ref> 1764 saw the defeat of the combined forces of Mughal Emperor, Nawab of Oudh & Nawab of Bengal and Bihar at the hand of East India Company at the [[Battle of Buxar]]. Following this defeat, Shah Alam II left Delhi for Allahabad, ending hostilities with the [[Treaty of Allahabad]] (1765). Shah Alam II was reinstated to the throne of Delhi in 1772 by [[Mahadaji Shinde]] under the protection of the Marathas.<ref name="Rathod 1994 8"/> He was a [[de jure]] emperor. During his reign in 1793 British East India company abolished Nizamat (Mughal suzerainty) and took control of the former Mughal province of Bengal marking the beginning of British reign in parts of Eastern India officially.
|-
| [[Akbar Shah II]] || 1760 || 1806–1837 || 1837 ||He became a British pensioner after the defeat of the Marathas, who were the protector of the Mughal throne, in the Anglo-Maratha wars . Under East India company's protection, his imperial name was removed from the official coinage after a brief dispute with the [[British East India Company]];
|-
| [[Bahadur Shah II]] || 1775 || 1837–1857 || 1862 ||The last Mughal emperor was deposed in 1858 by the British East India company and exiled to [[Myanmar|Burma]] following the [[War of 1857]] after the fall of Delhi to the company troops. His death marks the end of the Mughal dynasty.
|}

== Influence on the Indian subcontinent ==

=== Mughal art and culture ===
{{Main article|Indo-Persian culture}}
[[File:Taj Mahal in March 2004.jpg|thumb|Built by Mughal emperor [[Shah Jahan]] for his beloved wife, the [[Taj Mahal]] is a world-renowned testament to [[Mughal architecture]].]]
[[File:Two elephants carrying the fish and sun insignia of Mughal sovereignty.jpg|thumb|Two elephants carrying the fish and sun insignia of Mughal sovereignty]]
A major Mughal contribution to the [[Indian subcontinent]] was their unique [[Mughal architecture|architecture]]. Many monuments were built by the Muslim emperors, especially [[Shah Jahan]], during the Mughal era including the [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]] [[Taj Mahal]], which is known to be one of the finer examples of Mughal architecture. Other [[World Heritage Sites]] include [[Humayun's Tomb]], [[Fatehpur Sikri]], the [[Red Fort]], the [[Agra Fort]], and the [[Lahore Fort]]

The palaces, tombs, and forts built by the dynasty stand today in [[Agra]], [[Aurangabad, Maharashtra|Aurangabad]], [[Delhi]], [[Dhaka]], [[Fatehpur Sikri]], [[Jaipur]], [[Lahore]], [[Kabul]], [[Sheikhupura]], and many other cities of [[India]], [[Pakistan]], [[Afghanistan]], and [[Bangladesh]].<ref>{{cite book |author1=Ross Marlay |author2=Clark D. Neher |date=1999 |title=Patriots and Tyrants: Ten Asian Leaders |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |page=269 |isbn=0-8476-8442-3}}</ref> With few memories of Central Asia, Babur's descendants absorbed traits and customs of South Asia,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.webindia123.com/history/MEDIEVAL/mughal%20period/mughal2.htm |title=Indian History-Medieval-Mughal Period-AKBAR |publisher=Webindia123.com |accessdate=28 November 2012}}</ref> and became more or less naturalised.

Mughal influence can be seen in cultural contributions such as:{{citation needed|date=April 2012}}
* Centralized, imperialistic government which brought together many smaller kingdoms.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Mughal Empire&nbsp;– MSN Encarta <!-- BOT GENERATED TITLE -->|url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761564252/mughal_empire.html|work=|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5kx6SG3s9|archivedate=1 November 2009|deadurl=yes}}</ref>
* [[Persian art]] and culture amalgamated with [[Indian art]] and culture.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.soas.ac.uk/southasia/research/nilc/indopersian/ |title=Indo-Persian Literature Conference: SOAS: North Indian Literary Culture (1450–1650) |publisher=SOAS |accessdate=28 November 2012}}</ref>
* New trade routes to [[Arab]] and [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] lands.
* The development of [[Mughlai cuisine]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.indianfoodforever.com/mughlai/ |title=Mughlai Recipes, Mughlai Dishes&nbsp;– Cuisine, Mughlai Food |publisher=Indianfoodforever.com |accessdate=28 November 2012}}</ref>
* Mughal Architecture found its way into local [[Indian architecture]], most conspicuously in the palaces built by [[Rajput]]s and [[Sikh]] rulers.
* Landscape and [[Mughal gardens|Mughal gardening]]

Although the land the Mughals once ruled has separated into what is now India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Afghanistan, their influence can still be seen widely today. Tombs of the emperors are spread throughout India, Afghanistan,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.afghanistan-photos.com/crbst_36.html |title=The garden of Bagh-e Babur : Tomb of the Mughal emperor |publisher=Afghanistan-photos.com |accessdate=28 November 2012}}</ref> and Pakistan.

The [[Mughal painting|Mughal artistic tradition]] was eclectic, borrowing from the European Renaissance as well as from Persian and Indian sources. Kumar concludes, "The Mughal painters borrowed individual motifs and certain naturalistic effects from Renaissance and Mannerist painting, but their structuring principle was derived from Indian and Persian traditions."<ref>R. Siva Kumar, "Modern Indian Art: a Brief Overview", ''Art Journal'' (1999) 58#3 pp 14+.</ref>

=== Urdu language ===
{{Main article|Persian language in South Asia|Persian and Urdu}}
[[File:Zaban urdu mualla.png|thumb|The phrase {{transl|ur|''Zuban-i Urdū-yi Muʿallá''}} ("Language of the exalted [[Urdu]]") written in [[Nastaʿlīq script]].]]

Although [[Persian language|Persian]] was the dominant and "official" language of the empire, the language of the elite later evolved into a form known as [[Urdu language|Urdu]]. Highly Persianized and also influenced by Arabic and Turkic, the language was written in a type of [[Perso-Arabic script]] known as [[Nastaliq]], and with literary conventions and specialised vocabulary being retained from [[Persian language|Persian]], [[Arabic]] and [[Turkic languages|Turkic]]; the new dialect was eventually given its own name of Urdu. Compared with [[Hindi]], the Urdu language draws more vocabulary from Persian and Arabic (via Persian) and (to a much lesser degree) from Turkic languages where Hindi draws vocabulary from [[Sanskrit]] more heavily.<ref name="Sikmirza">{{cite web|url = http://www.geocities.com/sikmirza/arabic/hindustani.html| title = A Brief Hindi&nbsp;– Urdu FAQ|publisher = sikmirza|accessdate = 20 May 2008|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071202103338/http://www.geocities.com/sikmirza/arabic/hindustani.html|archivedate=2 December 2007}}</ref> Modern [[Hindi]], which uses [[Sanskrit]]-based vocabulary along with Urdu loan words from Persian and Arabic, is [[mutually intelligible]] with [[Urdu]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pakistaniat.com/2009/07/23/urdu-dictionary-project-is-under-threat/ |title=Urdu Dictionary Project is Under Threat : ALL THINGS PAKISTAN |publisher=Pakistaniat.com |accessdate=28 November 2012}}</ref> Today, Urdu is the national language of [[Pakistan]] and one of the [[List of official languages of India|official languages]] in India.

=== Bengali calendar and economy ===
[[File:Silver Rupee Madras Presidency.JPG|thumb|A silver coin made during the reign of the [[Mughal Emperor]] [[Alamgir II]].]]

The economic powerhouse of the Mughal Empire was the [[Bengal Subah]], which generated 50% of the empire's GDP.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thedailystar.net/op-ed/politics/which-india-claiming-have-been-colonised-119284|title=Which India is claiming to have been colonised?|work=The Daily Star}}</ref> It was described as the ''Paradise of Nations'' by Mughal emperors.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dhakatribune.com/heritage/2014/dec/20/paradise-nations|title=The paradise of nations - Dhaka Tribune|publisher=}}</ref> The Mughals introduced [[agrarian reform]]s, including the modern [[Bengali calendar]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://scroll.in/article/720351/bengali-new-year-how-akbar-invented-the-modern-bengali-calendar|title=Bengali New Year: how Akbar invented the modern Bengali calendar|author=Shoaib Daniyal|work=Scroll.in}}</ref> The calendar played a vital role in developing and organising harvests, tax collection and Bengali culture in general, including the [[Bengali New Year|New Year]] and [[Nabanna|Autumn]] festivals. The province was a leading producer of grains, salt, pearls, fruits, liquors and wines, precious metals and ornaments.<ref name="books.google.com">{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HsV3cYAvGEEC&redir_esc=y|title=Bengal|publisher=}}</ref> Its [[handloom]] industry flourished under [[royal warrant of appointment|royal warrants]], making the region a hub of the worldwide [[muslin]] trade, which peaked in the 17th and 18th centuries. The provincial capital [[Dhaka]] became the commercial capital of the empire. The Mughals expanded cultivated land in the [[Bengal delta]] under the leadership of [[Sufi]]s, which consolidated the foundation of [[Bengali Muslim]] society.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=gKhChF3yAOUC&printsec=frontcover&dq=rise+of+islam+and+the+bengal+frontier&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjYk6LJ5rbMAhVGp5QKHfkbBYQQ6AEIGzAA#v=onepage&q=rise%20of%20islam%20and%20the%20bengal%20frontier&f=false The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204-1760] by Richard Maxwell Eaton, Google Books.</ref>

After 150 years of rule by Mughal [[viceroy]]s, Bengal gained semi-independence as a [[dominion]] under the [[Nawab of Bengal]] in 1717. The Nawabs permitted European companies to set up trading posts across the region, including firms from [[British East India Company|Britain]], [[French East India Company|France]], the [[Dutch Bengal|Netherlands]], [[Danish India|Denmark]], Portugal and [[Bankipur (Bengal)|Austria-Hungary]]. An [[Armenian community of Dhaka|Armenian]] community dominated banking and shipping in major cities and towns. The Europeans regarded Bengal as the richest place for trade.<ref name="books.google.com"/> By the late 18th century, the [[British Empire|British]] displaced the Mughal ruling class in Bengal.

=== Mughal society ===
[[File:Boro Katra 4 by Ashif Siddique.jpg|thumb|Ruins of the [[Bara Katra|Great Caravanserai]] in [[Dhaka]]]]

The Indian economy remained as prosperous under the Mughals as it was, because of the creation of a road system and a uniform currency, together with the unification of the country.<ref>[[John F. Richards]],  ''The Mughal Empire'' (1996) pp 185–204</ref> Manufactured goods and peasant-grown cash crops were sold throughout the world. Key industries included shipbuilding (the Indian shipbuilding industry was as advanced as the European, and Indians sold ships to European firms), textiles, and steel. The Mughals maintained a small fleet, which merely carried pilgrims to Mecca, imported a few Arab horses in [[Surat]]. [[Debal]] in [[Sindh]] was mostly autonomous. The Mughals also maintained various river fleets of [[Dhows]], which transported soldiers over rivers and fought rebels. Among its admirals were [[Yahya Saleh]], [[Munnawar Khan]], and [[Muhammad Saleh Kamboh]]. The Mughals also protected the [[Siddis]] of [[Janjira]]. Its sailors were renowned and often voyaged to China and the East African Swahili Coast, together with some Mughal subjects carrying out private-sector trade.

Cities and towns boomed under the Mughals; however, for the most part, they were military and political centres, not manufacturing or commerce centres.<ref>K. N. Chaudhuri, "Some Reflections on the Town and Country in Mughal India", Modern Asian Studies (1978) 12#1 pp. 77–96</ref> Only those guilds which produced goods for the bureaucracy made goods in the towns; most industry was based in rural areas. The Mughals also built [[Maktab]]s in every province under their authority, where youth were taught the [[Quran]] and [[Sharia|Islamic law]] such as the [[Fatawa-e-Alamgiri]] in their indigenous languages.

The Bengal region was especially prosperous from the time of its takeover by the Mughals in 1590 to the seizure of control by the British East India Company in 1757.<ref>Tirthankar1 Roy, "Where is Bengal? Situating an Indian Region in the Early Modern World Economy", ''Past & Present'' (Nov 2011) 213#1 pp 115–146</ref> In a system where most wealth was hoarded by the elites, wages were low for manual labour. Slavery was limited largely to household servants. However, some religious cults proudly asserted a high status for manual labour.<ref>Shireen Moosvi, "The World of Labour in Mughal India (c.1500–1750)", ''International Review of Social History'' (Dec 2011) Supplement S, Vol. 56 Issue S19, pp 245–261</ref>

== Science and technology ==

=== Astronomy ===
While there appears to have been little concern for theoretical astronomy, Mughal astronomers continued to make advances in [[observational astronomy]] and produced nearly a hundred Zij treatises. [[Humayun]] built a personal observatory near Delhi. The instruments and observational techniques used at the Mughal observatories were mainly derived from the Islamic tradition.<ref name="Sharma">{{citation|title=Sawai Jai Singh and His Astronomy|first=Virendra Nath|last=Sharma|year=1995|publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] Publ.|isbn=81-208-1256-5|pages=8–9}}</ref><ref name="Baber">{{citation|title=The Science of Empire: Scientific Knowledge, Civilization, and Colonial Rule in India|first=Zaheer|last=Baber|year=1996|publisher=[[State University of New York Press]]|isbn=0-7914-2919-9|pages=82–9}}</ref> In particular, one of the most remarkable astronomical instruments invented in Mughal India is the seamless celestial globe.

=== Alchemy ===
[[Sake Dean Mahomed]] had learned much of Mughal alchemy and understood the techniques used to produce various alkali and soaps to produce shampoo. He was also a notable writer who described the [[Mughal Emperor]] [[Shah Alam II]] and the cities of Allahabad and Delhi in rich detail and also made note of the glories of the Mughal Empire.

[[Sake Dean Mahomed]] was appointed as shampooing surgeon to both Kings [[George IV of the United Kingdom|George IV]] and [[William IV of the United Kingdom|William IV]].<ref name="Teltscher">{{cite journal|doi=10.1080/13698010020019226|title=The Shampooing Surgeon and the Persian Prince: Two Indians in Early Nineteenth-century Britain|first=Kate|last=Teltscher|journal=Interventions: International Journal of Postcolonial Studies, 1469-929X|volume=2|issue=3|year=2000|pages=409–23}}</ref>

=== Technology ===
{{See also|History of gunpowder#India|l1=History of gunpowder: India}}

[[Fathullah Shirazi]] (c. 1582), a Persian polymath and mechanical engineer who worked for Akbar, developed a [[volley gun]].<ref name="Fathullah Shirazi">{{cite journal|last=Bag|first=A. K.|title=Fathullah Shirazi: Cannon, Multi-barrel Gun and Yarghu|journal=Indian Journal of History of Science|year=2005|volume=40|issue=3|pages=431–436|publisher=[[Indian National Science Academy]]|location=New Delhi|issn=0019-5235}}</ref>

Akbar was the first to initiate and use metal cylinder rockets known as ''bans'' particularly against [[War elephant]]s, during the Battle of Sanbal.<ref>{{cite web|author=MughalistanSipahi |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Lbzr26t8H2U |title=Islamic Mughal Empire: War Elephants Part 3 |publisher=YouTube |date=19 June 2010 |accessdate=28 November 2012}}</ref>

In the year 1657, the [[Mughal Army]] used rockets during the [[Siege of Bidar]].<ref name="google1">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yAJuAAAAMAAJ&q=aurangzeb+bidar+rocket&dq=aurangzeb+bidar+rocket&hl=en&sa=X&ei=cXo1T5DDFcXP-ga3nPjsAQ&ved=0CE0Q6AEwBg |title=The Mughal Empire&nbsp;– Ishwari Prasad&nbsp;– Google Books |publisher=Books.google.com.pk |accessdate=29 April 2012}}</ref> Prince Aurangzeb's forces discharged rockets and grenades while scaling the walls. Sidi Marjan was mortally wounded when a rocket struck his large gunpowder depot, and after twenty-seven days of hard fighting Bidar was captured by the victorious Mughals.<ref name="google1" />

Later, the [[Mysorean rockets]] were upgraded versions of Mughal rockets used during the [[Siege of Jinji]] by the progeny of the [[Nawab of Arcot]]. [[Hyder Ali]]'s father [[Fatah Muhammad]] the constable at [[Budikote]], commanded a corps consisting of 50 rocketmen (''Cushoon'') for the Nawab of Arcot. Hyder Ali realised the importance of rockets and introduced advanced versions of metal cylinder rockets. These rockets turned fortunes in favour of the [[Sultanate of Mysore]] during the [[Second Anglo-Mysore War]], particularly during the [[Battle of Pollilur]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nal.res.in/pages/rocketsdet.htm|title=Rockets in Mysore and Britain, 1750–1850 A.D.|author=Roddam Narasimha|year=1985|work= |publisher=National Aerospace Laboratories, India|accessdate=30 November 2011}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Mansabdar]]
* [[Mughal (tribe)]]
* [[Mughal weapons]]
* [[Mughal Harem]]
* ''[[Mughal-e-Azam]]'', an Indian film
* [[List of Mongol states]]
* [[Mughal-Mongol genealogy]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== Further reading ==
* Alam, Muzaffar. ''Crisis of Empire in Mughal North India: Awadh & the Punjab, 1707–48'' (1988)
* {{citation |last=Ali |first=M. Athar |date=1975 |title=The Passing of Empire: The Mughal Case |journal=Modern Asian Studies |publisher=Cambridge University Press |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=385–396 |jstor=311728}}, on the causes of its collapse
* {{citation|last1=Asher|first1=C. B.|last2=Talbot|first2=C|date=1 January 2008|title=India Before Europe|edition=1st|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-0-521-51750-8}}
* Black, Jeremy. "The Mughals Strike Twice", ''History Today'' (April 2012) 62#4 pp 22–26. full text online
* {{citation |last=Blake |first=Stephen P. |date=November 1979 |title=The Patrimonial-Bureaucratic Empire of the Mughals |journal=Journal of Asian Studies |publisher=Association for Asian Studies |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=77–94 |jstor=2053505}}
* Dale, Stephen F. ''The Muslim Empires of the Ottomans, Safavids and Mughals'' (Cambridge U.P. 2009)
* {{cite book|author=Dalrymple, William |title=The Last Mughal: The Fall of a Dynasty : Delhi, 1857|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zlEDvkhEmL8C|year= 2007|publisher=Random House Digital, Inc.}}
* {{citation |last=Faruqui |first=Munis D. |date=2005 |title=The Forgotten Prince: Mirza Hakim and the Formation of the Mughal Empire in India |journal=Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient |publisher=Brill |volume=48 |issue=4 |pages=487–523 |jstor=25165118}}, on Akbar and his brother
* Gommans; Jos. ''Mughal Warfare: Indian Frontiers and Highroads to Empire, 1500–1700'' (Routledge, 2002) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=102714757 online edition]
* Gordon, S. ''[[The New Cambridge History of India]], II, 4: The Marathas 1600–1818'' (Cambridge, 1993).
* Habib, Irfan. ''Atlas of the Mughal Empire: Political and Economic Maps'' (1982).
* {{cite book |date=2004 |origyear=First published 1994 as ''Histoire de l'Inde Moderne'' |editor-first=Claude |editor-last=Markovits |title=A History of Modern India, 1480–1950 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uzOmy2y0Zh4C |edition=2nd |location=London |publisher=Anthem Press |isbn=978-1-84331-004-4}}
* {{citation|last1=Metcalf|first1=B.|last2=Metcalf|first2=T. R.|author1-link=Barbara Metcalf|author2-link=Thomas R. Metcalf|date=9 October 2006|title=A Concise History of Modern India|edition=2nd|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-0-521-68225-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iuESgYNYPl0C}}
* {{cite book|author=Richards, John F. |title=The Mughal Empire|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HHyVh29gy4QC|year=1996|publisher=Cambridge University Press}}
* {{cite book|author=Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra |title=The Mughul Empire|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hmagAAAAMAAJ|year=1974|publisher=B.V. Bhavan}}
* Richards, John F. ''The Mughal Empire'' (The New Cambridge History of India) (1996) [http://www.amazon.com/Mughal-Empire-Cambridge-History-India/dp/0521566037/  excerpt and online search]
* {{citation |last=Richards |first=J. F. |date=April 1981 |title=Mughal State Finance and the Premodern World Economy |journal=Comparative Studies in Society and History |publisher=Cambridge University Press |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=285–308 |jstor=178737}}
* {{citation|last=Robb|first=P.|title=A History of India|year=2001|publisher=London: Palgrave|isbn=978-0-333-69129-8}}
* {{citation|last=Stein|first=B.|author-link=Burton Stein|date=16 June 1998|title=A History of India|edition=1st|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|place=Oxford|isbn=978-0-631-20546-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SXdVS0SzQSAC}}
* {{citation|last=Stein|first=B.|author-link=Burton Stein|editor-last=Arnold|editor-first=D.|date=27 April 2010|title=A History of India|edition=2nd|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|place=Oxford|isbn=978-1-4051-9509-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QY4zdTDwMAQC}}
{{refend}}

=== Culture ===
* Berinstain, V. ''Mughal India: Splendour of the Peacock Throne'' (London, 1998).
* Busch, Allison. ''Poetry of Kings: The Classical Hindi Literature of Mughal India'' (2011) [http://www.amazon.com/Poetry-Kings-Classical-Literature-Research/dp/0199765928/ref=sr_1_2?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1339157925&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
* {{cite book |author1=Diana Preston |author2=Michael Preston |date=2007 |title=Taj Mahal: Passion and Genius at the Heart of the Moghul Empire |publisher=Walker & Company |isbn=0-8027-1673-3}}
* [[Annemarie Schimmel|Schimmel, Annemarie]]. ''The Empire of the Great Mughals: History, Art and Culture'' (Reaktion 2006)
* {{cite book |author=Welch, S.C.| url=http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/114935/rec/401|title=The Emperors' album: images of Mughal India| location=New York | publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art | year=1987 | isbn=0-87099-499-9|display-authors=etal}}

=== Society and economy ===
* {{citation |last=Chaudhuri |first=K. N. |date=1978 |title=Some Reflections on the Town and Country in Mughal India |journal=Modern Asian Studies |publisher=Cambridge University Press |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=77–96 |jstor=311823}}
* Habib, Irfan. ''Atlas of the Mughal Empire: Political and Economic Maps'' (1982).
* Habib, Irfan. ''Agrarian System of Mughal India'' (1963, revised edition 1999).
* {{citation |last=Heesterman |first=J. C. |date=2004 |title=The Social Dynamics of the Mughal Empire: A Brief Introduction |journal=Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient |publisher=Brill |volume=47 |issue=3 |pages=292–297 |jstor=25165051}}
* {{citation |last=Khan |first=Iqtidar Alam |date=1976 |title=The Middle Classes in the Mughal Empire |journal=Social Scientist |publisher= |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=28–49 |jstor=3516601}}
* Rothermund, Dietmar. ''An Economic History of India: From Pre-Colonial Times to 1991'' (1993)

=== Primary sources ===
* {{cite book|last=Bernier|first= Francois |authorlink=François Bernier|title=Travels in the Mogul Empire, A.D. 1656–1668 |url=https://archive.org/stream/travelsinmogulem00bernuoft#page/ii/mode/2up|year=1891|publisher=Archibald Constable, London}}
* Hiro, Dilip, ed, ''Journal of Emperor Babur'' (Penguin Classics 2007)
** ''The Baburnama: Memoirs of Babur, Prince and Emperor'' ed. by W.M. Thackston Jr. (2002); this was the first autobiography in Islamic literature
* Jackson, A.V. et al., eds. ''History of India'' (1907) v.9. Historic accounts of India by foreign travellers, classic, oriental, and occidental, by A.V.W. Jackson [https://archive.org/details/historyofindia09jackiala online edition]
* {{cite book |author=Jouher |others=Translated by Major Charles Stewart |title=The Tezkereh al vakiat or Private Memoirs of the Moghul Emperor Humayun Written in the Persian language by Jouher A confidential domestic of His Majesty |url=https://archive.org/stream/tezkerehalvakiat00jawhuoft#page/n7/mode/2up|year=1832|publisher=John Murray, London}}

=== Older histories ===
* Elliot, Sir H. M., Edited by Dowson, John. ''[[The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period]]''; published by London Trubner Company 1867–1877. (Online Copy at [[Packard Humanities Institute]]&nbsp;– Other Persian Texts in Translation; historical books: Author List and Title List)
* {{cite book|last=Adams|first= W. H. Davenport |title=Warriors of the Crescent|url=https://archive.org/stream/warriorsofcresce00adamuoft#page/n9/mode/2up|year=1893|publisher=London: Hutchinson}}
* {{cite book|last=Holden|first=Edward Singleton|authorlink=Edward Singleton Holden|title=The Mogul emperors of Hindustan, A.D. 1398- A.D. 1707|url=https://archive.org/stream/mogulemperorsofh00hold#page/n9/mode/2up|year=1895|publisher=New York : C. Scribner's Sons}}
* {{cite book|last=Malleson|first=G. B|title=Akbar and the rise of the Mughal empire|url=https://archive.org/stream/akbarriseofmugha00mallrich#page/n5/mode/2up|year=1896|publisher=Oxford : Clarendon Press}}
* {{cite book|last=Manucci|first=Niccolao|authorlink=Niccolao Manucci|author2= tr. from French by [[François Catrou]]|title=History of the Mogul dynasty in India, 1399–1657|url=https://archive.org/stream/historyofmoguldy00manurich#page/n5/mode/2up|year=1826|publisher=London : J.M. Richardson}}
* {{cite book|last=Lane-Poole|first= Stanley|authorlink=Stanley Lane-Poole|title=History of India: From Reign of Akbar the Great to the Fall of Moghul Empire (Vol. 4)|url=https://archive.org/stream/historyofindia04jackuoft#page/n9/mode/2up|year=1906|publisher=London, Grolier society}}
* {{cite book|last=Manucci|first=Niccolao |authorlink=Niccolao Manucci|author2=tr. by [[William Irvine (historian)|William Irvine]]|title=Storia do Mogor; or, Mogul India 1653–1708, Vol. 1|url=https://archive.org/stream/storiadomogororm01manuuoft#page/n7/mode/2up|year=1907|publisher=London, J.  Murray}}
* {{cite book|last=Manucci|first=Niccolao |authorlink=Niccolao Manucci|author2=tr. by William Irvine|title=Storia do Mogor; or, Mogul India 1653–1708, Vol. 2|url=https://archive.org/stream/storiadomogororm02manuuoft#page/n7/mode/2up|year=1907|publisher=London, J.  Murray}}
* {{cite book|last=Manucci|first=Niccolao |authorlink=Niccolao Manucci|author2=tr. by William Irvine|title=Storia do Mogor; or, Mogul India 1653–1708, Vol. 3|url=https://archive.org/stream/storiadomogororm03manuuoft#page/n9/mode/2up|year=1907|publisher=London, J.  Murray}}
* {{cite book|last=Owen|first=Sidney J|title=The Fall of the Mogul Empire|url=https://archive.org/stream/fallofmogulempir00owenuoft#page/n5/mode/2up|year=1912|publisher=London, J. Murray}}

== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|voy=Mughal Empire}}
* [http://www.valleyswat.net/literature/papers/MUGHULS_AND_SWAT.pdf Mughals and Swat]
* [http://www.mughalindia.co.uk/index.html Mughal India] an interactive experience from the [[British Museum]]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/mughalempire_1.shtml The Mughal Empire] from [[BBC]]
* [http://www.i3pep.org/archives/2005/04/12/mughal-empire/ Mughal Empire]
* [http://www.islamicarchitecture.org/dynasties/mughals.html The Great Mughals]
* [http://www.mughalgardens.org/html/home.html Gardens of the Mughal Empire]
* ''Indo-Iranian Socio-Cultural Relations at Past, Present and Future'', by M. Reza Pourjafar, Ali
* A. Taghvaee, in [http://www.webjournal.unior.it/ ''Web Journal on Cultural Patrimony'' (Fabio Maniscalco ed.)], vol. 1, January–June 2006
* [http://www.paradoxplace.com/Insights/Civilizations/Mughals/Mughals.htm Adrian Fletcher's Paradoxplace&nbsp;— PHOTOS&nbsp;— Great Mughal Emperors of India]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/1566398.stm A Mughal diamond on BBC]
* [http://www.chiefacoins.com/Database/Countries/Mughal.htm Some Mughal coins with brief history]

{{Mughal Empire}}
{{Empires}}

{{Authority control}}

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