Mongol sayfasının kaynağını görüntüle

{{about|the ethnic group}}
{{pp-semi-indef}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group = Mongols<br />Монголчууд<br />''Mongolchuud''<br />{{MongolUnicode|ᠮᠣᠩᠭ᠋ᠣᠯᠴᠤᠳ}}<!-- According to GPB (Georgian Public Broadcasting) -->
|image = 
| poptime = 10 million (2010)
|region1    = <span style="font-size:105%;">'''Majority populations'''</span>
|region2    = {{flag|China}} <br/> <small>([[Inner Mongolia]])</small>
|pop2       = 5,981,840 (2010)
|ref2       = <ref>[[Demographics of China#Ethnic groups|Demographics of China]]</ref>
| region3 = {{flag|Mongolia}}
| pop3 = 2,921,287<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nso.mn/ |title=Монголын үндэсний статистикийн хороо |publisher=National Statistical Office of Mongolia |accessdate=2013-11-14}}</ref>
| region5 = {{flag|Russia}}
| pop5 = 647,417
| ref5 = <ref>2,656 Mongols proper, 461,389 [[Buryats]], 183,372 [[Kalmyk people|Kalmyks]] ([[Russian Census (2010)]])</ref>
| region6 = {{flag|South Korea}}
| pop6 = 34,000
| ref6 = <ref name="KoreanDream">{{citation|url=http://english.chosun.com/w21data/html/news/200804/200804240009.html |title='Korean Dream' fills Korean classrooms in Mongolia |periodical=The Chosun Ilbo |date=2008-04-24 |accessdate=2009-02-06 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080923234831/http://english.chosun.com/w21data/html/news/200804/200804240009.html |archivedate=September 23, 2008 }}</ref>
| region7 = {{flag|United States}}
| pop7 = 15,000–18,000
| ref7 = <ref name="Washington">{{cite news|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/07/02/AR2006070200875.html|title=Mongolians Meld Old, New In Making Arlington Home|work=The Washington Post|last=Bahrampour|first=Tara|date=2006-07-03|accessdate=2007-09-05}}</ref>
| region8 = {{flag|Kyrgyzstan}}
| pop8 =  12,000
| ref8 = <ref>[http://www.president.mn/eng/newsCenter/viewNews.php?newsId=697 President of Mongoli Received the Kalmyk Citizens of the Kyrgyz. 2012]</ref>
| region9 = {{flag|Czech Republic}}
| pop9 = 7,515
| ref9 = <ref name="MW7500">{{citation|periodical=Mongolia Web|title=Latest numbers show 7,500 Mongolians working in Czech Republic|date=2008-02-19|accessdate=2008-10-04|url=http://www.mongolia-web.com/content/view/1630/2/}}</ref>
| region10 = {{flag|Japan}}
| pop10 = 5,401
| ref10 = <ref name="toollogo2010.mn">{{cite web|url=http://www.toollogo2010.mn/doc/Main%20results_20110615_to%20EZBH_for%20print.pdf|title=Mongolia National Census|language=Mongolian|publisher=National Statistical Office of Mongolia|year=2010|accessdate=29 January 2017|format=PDF|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110915170555/http://www.toollogo2010.mn/doc/Main%20results_20110615_to%20EZBH_for%20print.pdf|archivedate=15 September 2011|deadurl=yes}}</ref>
| region11 = {{flag|Canada}}
| pop11 = 5,350
| ref11 = <ref name="NHS2011">[http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/nhs-enm/2011/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=PR&Code1=01&Data=Count&SearchText=canada&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&A1=All&B1=All&Custom=&TABID=1 NHS Profile, Canada, 2011]</ref>
| region12 = {{flag|Germany}}
| pop12 = 3,852
| ref12 = <ref name="toollogo2010.mn"/>
| region13 = {{flag|United Kingdom}}
| pop13 = 3,701
| ref13 = <ref name="toollogo2010.mn"/>
| region14 = {{flag|France}}
| pop14 = 2,859
| ref14 = <ref name="toollogo2010.mn"/>
| region15 = {{flag|Turkey}}
| pop15 = 2,645
| ref15 = <ref name="toollogo2010.mn"/>
| region16  = {{flag|Kazakhstan}}
| pop16     = 2,523
| ref16     = <ref name="toollogo2010.mn"/>
| region17  = {{flag|Austria}}
| pop17     = 1,955
| ref17     = <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.statistik.at/web_de/statistiken/bevoelkerung/bevoelkerungsstruktur/bevoelkerung_nach_staatsangehoerigkeit_geburtsland/|title=Bevölkerung nach Staatsangehörigkeit und Geburtsland|trans_title=Population by citizenship and country of birth|language=German|date=3 July 2014|accessdate=21 August 2014|publisher=Statistik Austria}}</ref>
| region18  = {{flag|Malaysia}}
| pop18     = 1,500
| ref18     = <ref name="toollogo2010.mn"/>
|langs      =  [[Mongolian language]]
| rels      = Predominantly [[Tibetan Buddhism]], background of [[shamanism]].<ref name='mongolian'>{{cite book | last1 = National Bureau of Statistics of the People's Republic of China | authorlink1 = National Bureau of Statistics of the People's Republic of China | title = Tabulation of the 2010 Population Census of the People's Republic of China | publisher = China Statistics Press | date = April 2012  | url = http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjsj/pcsj/rkpc/6rp/indexch.htm | accessdate = 2013-02-19 | isbn = 978-7-5037-6507-0}}</ref><ref>[http://www.travelchinaguide.com/intro/nationality/mongolian/ China Mongolian, Mongol Ethnic Minority, Mongols History, Food]</ref><ref>[http://www.china.org.cn/e-groups/shaoshu/shao-2-mongolian.htm China.org.cn – The Mongolian ethnic minority]</ref><ref>[http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/EthnicGroups/136937.htm China.org.cn – The Mongolian Ethnic Group]</ref> minority [[Sunni Islam]], [[Eastern Orthodox Church]], [[Taoism]], [[Bön]] and [[Protestantism]].
| related-c = [[Proto-Mongols]], [[Khitan people]]
}}

The '''Mongols''' ({{lang-mn|Монголчууд}}, ''Mongolchuud'', {{IPA-mn|ˈmɔŋɡɔɮ.t͡ʃuːt|}}) are an [[East Asia|East]]-[[Central Asia]]n ethnic group native to [[Mongolia]] and [[China]]'s [[Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region]]. They also live as minorities in other regions of China (e.g. [[Xinjiang]]), as well as in [[Russia]]. Mongolian people belonging to the [[Buryats|Buryat]] and [[Kalmyk people|Kalmyk]] subgroups live predominantly in the Russian federal subjects of [[Buryatia]] and [[Kalmykia]].

The Mongols are bound together by a common heritage and ethnic identity. Their indigenous dialects are collectively known as the [[Mongolian language]]. The ancestors of the modern-day Mongols are referred to as [[Proto-Mongols]].

== Definition ==
Broadly defined, the term includes the Mongols proper (also known as the [[Khalkha Mongols]]), [[Buryats]], [[Oirats]], the [[Kalmyk people]] and the Southern Mongols. The latter comprises the [[Abaga Mongols]], [[Abaganar]], [[Aohans]], [[Baarins]], [[Gorlos Mongols]], [[Jalaids]], [[Jaruud]], [[Khishigten]], [[Khuuchid]], [[Muumyangan]] and [[Onnigud]].

The designation "Mongol" briefly appeared in 8th century records of [[Tang dynasty|Tang China]] to describe a tribe of [[Shiwei]]. It resurfaced in the late 11th century during the [[Khitan people|Khitan]]-ruled [[Liao dynasty]]. After the fall of the Liao in 1125, the  [[Khamag Mongol]]s became a leading tribe on the [[Mongolian Plateau]]. However, their wars with the [[Jurchen people|Jurchen]]-ruled [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin dynasty]] and the [[Tatar confederation]] had weakened them.

In the thirteenth century, the word Mongol grew into an umbrella term for a large group of [[Mongolic languages|Mongolic-speaking]] tribes united under the rule of [[Genghis Khan]].<ref name="britannica">{{cite web
  | title = Mongolia: Ethnography of Mongolia
  | url = http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-27420/Mongolia#394579.hook
  | publisher = [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]
  | accessdate = 2007-07-22
}}</ref>

{{History of the Mongols}}

== History ==
{{Main|History of Mongolia}}

In various times Mongolic peoples have been equated with the [[Scythians]], the [[Gog and Magog|Magog]] and the [[Tungusic peoples]]. Based on Chinese historical texts the ancestry of the Mongolic peoples can be traced back to the [[Donghu people|Donghu]], a nomadic confederation occupying eastern Mongolia and [[Manchuria]]. The identity of the [[Xiongnu]] (Hünnü) is still debated today. Although some scholars maintain that they were [[proto-Mongols]], they were more likely a multi-ethnic group of Mongolic and Turkic tribes.<ref name="Geng 2005">Geng 2005</ref> It has been suggested that the language of the [[Huns]] was related to the Hünnü.<ref>Étienne de la Vaissière, Xiongnu. [http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/xiongnu Encyclopædia Iranica online], 2006</ref><ref>Dr. Obrusánszky, Borbála : The History and Civilization of the Huns. Paper of the University of Amsterdam, 8 October 2007. Page 60. [http://www.epa.oszk.hu/00000/00007/00028/pdf/00028.pdf]</ref>
<!--<ref>The autonomous Hunnic language was evidenced – [http://hunsarecoming.oxyhost.com/orighunlang.htm summary], Prof. Uchiraltu: The words of Hunnic language, 2007, Inner Mongolian University Press</ref><ref>The Asian Huns in the Chinese sources. Katalin Csornai, 2007, Budapest, Hungary [http://hunsarecoming.oxyhost.com/articles/asianhuns_chinesesources.htm summary]</ref>  -->

The Donghu, however, can be much more easily labeled proto-Mongol since the Chinese histories trace only Mongolic tribes and kingdoms ([[Xianbei]] and [[Wuhuan]] peoples) from them, although some historical texts claim a mixed Xiongnu-Donghu ancestry for some tribes (e.g. the [[Khitan people|Khitan]]).<ref>[[Frances Wood]], ''The Silk Road: two thousand years in the heart of Asia'', p. 48</ref>

=== In the Chinese classics ===
The Donghu are mentioned by [[Sima Qian]] as already existing in [[Inner Mongolia]] north of [[Yan (state)|Yan]] in 699–632 BCE along with the [[Shanrong]]. Mentions in the ''[[Yi Zhou Shu]]'' ("Lost Book of Zhou") and the ''[[Classic of Mountains and Seas]]'' indicate the Donghu were also active during the [[Shang dynasty]] (1600–1046 BCE).

The Xianbei formed part of the Donghu confederation, but had earlier times of independence, as evidenced by a mention in the ''[[Guoyu (book)|Guoyu]]'' ("晉語八" section), which states that during the reign of [[King Cheng of Zhou]] (reigned 1042–1021 BCE) they came to participate at a meeting of Zhou subject-lords at Qiyang (岐阳) (now [[Qishan County]]) but were only allowed to perform the fire ceremony under the supervision of [[Chu (state)|Chu]] since they were not vassals by covenant (诸侯). The Xianbei chieftain was appointed joint guardian of the ritual torch along with [[Xiong Yi]].

These early Xianbei came from the nearby [[Zhukaigou culture]] (2200–1500 BCE) in the Ordos Desert, where maternal DNA corresponds to the Mongol [[Daur people]] and the Tungusic [[Evenks]]. The Zhukaigou Xianbei (part of the [[Ordos culture]] of Inner Mongolia and northern [[Shaanxi]]) had trade relations with the Shang. In the late 2nd century, the Han dynasty scholar Fu Qian (服虔) wrote in his commentary "Jixie" (集解) that "[[Shanrong]] and [[Beidi]] are ancestors of the present-day Xianbei". Againm in Inner Mongolia another closely connected core Mongolic Xianbei region was the [[Upper Xiajiadian culture]] (1000–600 BCE) where the Donghu confederation was centered.

After the Donghu were defeated by Xiongnu king [[Modu Chanyu]], the Xianbei and [[Wuhuan]] survived as the main remnants of the confederation. [[Tadun]] Khan of the Wuhuan (died 207 AD) was the ancestor of the proto-Mongolic [[Kumo Xi]].<ref>[[Xin Tangshu]] 219. 6173.</ref> The Wuhuan are of the direct Donghu royal line and the ''[[New Book of Tang]]'' says that in 209 BCE, Modu Chanyu defeated the Wuhuan instead of using the word Donghu. The Xianbei, however, were of the lateral Donghu line and had a somewhat separate identity, although they shared the same language with the Wuhuan. In 49 CE the Xianbei ruler Bianhe (Bayan Khan?) raided and defeated the Xiongnu, killing 2000, after having received generous gifts from [[Emperor Guangwu of Han]]. The Xianbei reached their peak under Tanshihuai Khan (reigned 156–181) who expanded the vast, but short lived, [[Xianbei state]] (93–234).


Three prominent groups split from the [[Xianbei state]] as recorded by the Chinese histories: the [[Rouran]] (claimed by some to be the [[Pannonian Avars]]), the [[Khitan people]] and the [[Shiwei]] (a subtribe called the "Shiwei Menggu" is held to be the origin of the Genghisid Mongols).<ref>University of California, Berkeley. Project on Linguistic Analysis, ''Journal of Chinese linguistics'', p. 154</ref> Besides these three Xianbei groups, there were others such as the [[Murong]], [[Duan (tribe)|Duan]] and [[Tuoba]]. Their culture was nomadic, their religion [[shamanism]] or [[Buddhism]] and their military strength formidable. There is still no direct evidence that the Rouran spoke [[Mongolic languages]], although most scholars agree that they were Proto-Mongolic.<ref>Thomas Hoppe, ''Die ethnischen Gruppen Xinjiangs: Kulturunterschiede und interethnische'', p. 66</ref> The Khitan, however, had two scripts of their own and many Mongolic words are found in their half-deciphered writings.

Geographically, the [[Tuoba]] Xianbei ruled the southern part of Inner Mongolia and northern China, the Rouran ([[Yujiulü Shelun]] was the first to use the title [[khagan]] in 402) ruled eastern Mongolia, western Mongolia, the northern part of Inner Mongolia and northern Mongolia, the Khitan were concentrated in eastern part of Inner Mongolia north of [[Korea]] and the Shiwei were located to the north of the Khitan. These tribes and kingdoms were soon overshadowed by the rise of the [[Turkic Khaganate]] in 555, the [[Uyghur Khaganate]] in 745 and the [[Yenisei Kirghiz]] states in 840. The Tuoba were eventually absorbed into China. The Rouran fled west from the Göktürks and either disappeared into obscurity or, as some say, invaded Europe as the Avars under their Khan, [[Bayan I]]. Some Rouran under Tatar Khan migrated east, founding the [[Tatar confederation]], who became part of the [[Shiwei]]. The Khitan, who were independent after their separation from the [[Kumo Xi]] (of [[Wuhuan]] origin) in 388, continued as a minor power in Manchuria until one of them, Ambagai (872–926), established the [[Liao dynasty]] (907–1125) as [[Emperor Taizu of Liao]].

=== Era of the Mongol Empire and Northern Yuan ===
{{Main|Mongol Empire|Northern Yuan dynasty}}
[[File:Asia 500ad.jpg|thumb|left|367px|Asia in 500, showing the [[Rouran Khaganate]] and its neighbors, including the Northern Wei and the Tuyuhun Khanate, all of them were established by Proto-Mongols]]

The destruction of Uyghur Khaganate by the Kirghiz resulted in the end of Turkic dominance in Mongolia. According to historians, Kirhgiz were not interested in assimilating newly acquired lands; instead, they controlled local tribes through various manaps (tribal leader). The Khitans occupied the areas vacated by the Turkic Uyghurs bringing them under their control. The [[Yenisei Kirghiz]] state was centered on [[Khakassia]] and they were expelled from Mongolia by the Khitans in 924. The Khitan fled west after their defeat by the [[Jurchens]] (later known as [[Manchu people|Manchu]]) and founded the [[Qara Khitai]] (1125–1218) in eastern [[Kazakhstan]]. In 1218, Genghis Khan destroyed the Qara Khitai after which the Khitan passed into obscurity. The modern-day minority of Mongolic-speaking [[Daurs]] in China are their direct descendants based on DNA evidence<ref>Uradyn Erden Bulag ''The Mongols at China's edge: history and the politics of national unity'', p.167</ref><ref>Ruofu Du, Vincent F. Yip, ''Ethnic groups in China'', p.27</ref> and other Khitans assimilated into the Mongols (Inner Mongols), [[Turkic peoples]] and [[Han Chinese]].

The [[Shiwei]] included a tribe called the Shiwei Menggu (Shivei Mongol).<ref>Paul Ratchnevsky, Thomas Nivison Haining ''Genghis Khan: his life and legacy'', p. 7</ref> [[Bodonchar Munkhag]] the founder of the [[House of Borjigin]] and the ancestor of Genghis Khan is held to be descended from the Shiwei Menggu. The early Shiwei paid tribute to the [[Northern Wei|Tuoba Wei]] (386–534) and submitted to the Khitans. After the Khitans left Mongolia the [[Khamag Mongol]]s rose to prominence, when from the 1130s there were reciprocally hostile relations between the successive khans of the [[Khamag Mongol]] confederation ([[Khaidu (ruler)|Khaidu]], [[Khabul Khan]] and [[Ambaghai|Ambaghai Khan]]) and the emperors of the [[Jurchen people|Jurchen]]'s [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin dynasty]]. The Jin dynasty fell after their defeat against the rising [[Mongol Empire]], a steppe confederation that had formerly been a Jurchen vassal. Mongolic Khitans and Tuyuhuns or [[Monguor people]] (1227) came under rule of the Mongol Empire after conquest of the Western Xia and Jin Empires. The Qara Khitai submitted to Genghis Khan in 1218.

[[File:Mooko-Suenaga.jpg|thumb|325px|Mongols using [[China|Chinese]] [[gunpowder]] bombs during the [[Mongol Invasions of Japan]], 1281]]

With the expansion of the Mongol Empire, the Mongolic peoples settled over almost all [[Eurasia]] and carried on military campaigns from the [[Adriatic Sea]] to [[Indonesia]]n [[Java]] island and from [[Mongol invasion of Japan|Japan]] to [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] ([[Gaza City|Gaza]]). They simultaneously became [[Padishah]]s of [[Persia]], [[Emperors of China]], and [[Great Khans]] of Mongolia, and one became [[Sultan of Egypt]] ([[Al-Adil Kitbugha]]). The Mongolic peoples of the [[Golden Horde]] established themselves to govern Russia by 1240.<ref name="Jerry Bentley 1993">Jerry Bentley, "Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchange in Pre-Modern Times (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 136.</ref> By 1279, they conquered the Song dynasty and brought all of China under control of the [[Yuan dynasty]].<ref name="Jerry Bentley 1993"/>

With the breakup of the empire, the dispersed Mongolic peoples quickly adopted the mostly Turkic cultures surrounding them and were assimilated, forming parts of [[Azerbaijanis]], [[Uzbeks]], [[Karakalpaks]], [[Tatars]], [[Bashkirs]], [[Turkmens]], [[Uyghurs]], [[Nogays]], [[Kyrgyzs]], [[Kazakhs]], [[People of Caucasus|Caucasaus peoples]], [[Iranian peoples]] and [[Mughal (tribe)|Moghuls]]; linguistic and cultural [[Persianization]] also began to be prominent in these territories. Some Mongols assimilated into the [[Yakuts]] after their migration to Northern Siberia and about 30% of [[Yakut language|Yakut words]] have Mongol origin. However, most of the Yuan Mongols returned to Mongolia in 1368, retaining their language and culture. There were 250,000 Mongols in Southern China and many Mongols were massacred by the rebel army. The survivors were trapped in southern china and eventually assimilated. The [[Dongxiangs]], [[Bonans]], [[Yugur]] and [[Monguor people]] were invaded by Chinese [[Ming dynasty]].

After the fall of the Yuan dynasty in 1368, the Mongols continued to rule the [[Northern Yuan dynasty]] in Mongolia homeland. However, the [[Oirad]]s began to challenge the Eastern Mongolic peoples under the [[Borjigin]] monarchs in the late 14th century and Mongolia was divided into two parts: [[Western Mongolia]] ([[Oirats]]) and Eastern Mongolia ([[Khalkha]], [[Inner Mongols]], [[Barga Mongols|Barga]], [[Buryats]]).

In 1434, Eastern Mongolian [[Taisun Khan]]'s (1433–1452) prime minister Western Mongolian Togoon Taish reunited the Mongols after killing Eastern Mongolian another king Adai  ([[Khorchin]]). Togoon died in 1439 and his son [[Esen Taish]] became prime minister.Esen carried out successful policy for Mongolian unification and independence. The Ming Empire attempted to invade Mongolia in the 14–16th centuries, however, the Ming Empire was defeated by the Oirat, Southern Mongol, Eastern Mongol and united Mongolian armies. Esen's 30,000 cavalries defeated 500,000 Chinese soldiers in [[Tumu Crisis|1449]]. Within eighteen months of his defeat of the titular Khan Taisun, in 1453, Esen himself took the title of [[Great Khan]] (1454–1455) of the [[Great Yuan]].<ref>Sechin Jagchid, Van Jay Symons – Peace, war, and trade along the Great Wall: Nomadic-Chinese interaction through two millennia, p.49</ref>

The Khalkha emerged during the reign of [[Dayan Khan]] (1479–1543) as one of the six [[Tumen (unit)|tumen]]s of the Eastern Mongolic peoples. They quickly became the dominant Mongolic clan in Mongolia proper.<ref>[[Juha Janhunen|Janhunen, Juha]] ''The Mongolic languages'', p.177</ref><ref>Elizabeth E. Bacon ''Obok: A Study of Social Structure in Eurasia'', p.82</ref> He reunited the Mongols again. The Mongols voluntarily reunified during Eastern Mongolian [[Tümen Zasagt Khan]] rule (1558–1592) for the last time (the Mongol Empire united all Mongols before this).

Eastern Mongolia was divided into three parts in the 17th century: [[Outer Mongolia]] (Khalkha), [[Inner Mongolia]] (Inner Mongols) and the Buryat region in southern [[Siberia]].

The last Mongol khagan was [[Ligdan Khan|Ligdan]] in the early 17th century. He got into conflicts with the [[Manchu people|Manchus]] over the looting of Chinese cities, and managed to alienate most Mongol tribes. In 1618, Ligdan signed a treaty with the [[Ming dynasty]] to protect their northern border from the Manchus attack in exchange for thousands of taels of silver. By the 1620s, only the [[Chahars]] remained under his rule.

=== Qing-era Mongols ===
{{see also|Mongolia under Qing rule}}
The Chahar army was defeated in 1625 and 1628 by the Inner Mongol and Manchu armies due to Ligdan's faulty tactics. The Qing forces secured their control over Inner Mongolia by 1635, and the army of the last khan Ligdan moved to battle against Tibetan [[Gelugpa]] sect (Yellow Hat sect) forces. The Gelugpa forces supported the Manchus, while Ligdan supported [[Kagyu]] sect (Red Hat sect) of [[Tibetan Buddhism]]. Ligden died in 1634 on his way to [[Tibet]]. By 1636, most Inner Mongolian nobles had submitted to the [[Qing dynasty]] founded by the Manchus. Inner Mongolian Tengis [[noyan]] revolted against the Qing in the 1640s and the Khalkha battled to protect Sunud.

Western Mongolian Oirats and Eastern Mongolian Khalkhas vied for domination in Mongolia since the 15th century and this conflict weakened Mongolian strength. In 1688, Western Mongolian [[Dzungar Khanate]]'s king [[Galdan Boshugtu Khan|Galdan Boshugtu]] attacked Khalkha after murder of his younger brother by Tusheet Khan Chakhundorj (main or Central Khalkha leader) and the Khalkha-Oirat War began. Galdan threatened to kill Chakhundorj and [[Zanabazar]] (Javzandamba Khutagt I, spiritual head of Khalkha) but they escaped to Sunud (Inner Mongolia). Many Khalkha nobles and folks fled to Inner Mongolia because of the war. Few Khalkhas fled to the Buryat region and Russia threatened to exterminate them if they did not submit, but many of them submitted to Galdan Boshugtu.

The Khalkha eventually submitted to [[Mongolia under Qing rule|Qing rule]] in 1691 by [[Zanabazar]]'s decision, thus bringing all of today's Mongolia under the rule of the Qing dynasty but Khalkha ''[[de facto]]'' remained under the rule of Galdan Boshugtu Khaan until 1696. The Mongol-Oirat's Code (a treaty of alliance) against foreign invasion between the Oirats and Khalkhas was signed in 1640, however, the Mongols could not unite against foreign invasions. Chakhundorj fought against Russian invasion of [[Outer Mongolia]] until 1688 and stopped Russian invasion of [[Khövsgöl Province]]. Zanabazar struggled to bring together the Oirats and Khalkhas before the war.

Galdan Boshugtu sent his army to "liberate" Inner Mongolia after defeating the Khalkha's army and called Inner Mongolian nobles to fight for Mongolian independence. Some Inner Mongolian nobles, [[Tibetans]], [[Kumul Khanate]] and some [[Moghulistan]]'s nobles supported his war against the Manchus, however, Inner Mongolian nobles did not battle against the Qing.

There were three khans in Khalkha and Zasagt Khan Shar (Western Khalkha leader) was Galdan's ally. Tsetsen Khan (Eastern Khalkha leader) did not engage in this conflict. While Galdan was fighting in Eastern Mongolia, his nephew [[Tseveenravdan]] seized the Dzungarian throne in 1689 and this event made Galdan impossible to fight against the Qing Empire. The Russian and Qing Empires supported his action because this coup weakened Western Mongolian strength. Galdan Boshugtu's army was defeated by the outnumbering Qing army in 1696 and he died in 1697. The Mongols who fled to the Buryat region and Inner Mongolia returned after the war. Some Khalkhas mixed with the Buryats.

The Buryats fought against Russian [[Russian conquest of Siberia|invasion]] since the [[Expansion of Russia 1500–1800|1620s]] and thousands of Buryats were massacred. The Buryat region was formally annexed to Russia by treaties in 1689 and 1727, when the territories on both the sides of [[Lake Baikal]] were separated from Mongolia. In 1689 the [[Treaty of Nerchinsk]] established the northern border of [[Manchuria]] north of the present line. The Russians retained [[Trans-Baikal]]ia between Lake Baikal and the [[Argun River (Asia)|Argun River]] north of Mongolia. The [[Treaty of Kyakhta (1727)|Treaty of Kyakhta]] (1727), along with the Treaty of Nerchinsk, regulated the relations between [[Imperial Russia]] and the Qing Empire until the mid-nineteenth century. It established the [[Mongolia-Russia border|northern border]] of Mongolia. [[Oka River (Siberia)|Oka]] Buryats revolted in 1767 and Russia completely conquered the Buryat region in the late 18th century. Russia and Qing were rival empires until the early 20th century, however, both empires carried out united policy against Central Asians.

[[File:Battle of Oroi-Jalatu.jpg|thumb|left|425px|The Battle of Oroi-Jalatu in 1755 between the Qing and Oirat armies. The fall of the [[Dzungar Khanate]].]]

The Qing Empire conquered Upper Mongolia or the Oirat's [[Khoshut Khanate]] in the 1720s and 80,000 people were killed.<ref name="montaa.mn">[http://montaa.mn/content/view/73/ БУЦАЖ ИРЭЭГҮЙ МОНГОЛ АЙМГУУД] '''(Mongolian)'''</ref> By that period, Upper Mongolian population reached 200,000. The [[Dzungar Khanate]] conquered by the Qing dynasty in 1755–1758 because of their leaders and military commanders conflicts. Some scholars estimate that about 80% of the [[Dzungar people|Dzungar]] population were destroyed by a combination of warfare and disease during the [[Qing dynasty|Qing]] conquest of the Dzungar Khanate in 1755–1758.<ref>[http://www4.gu.edu.au:8080/adt-root/uploads/approved/adt-QGU20061121.163131/public/02Whole.pdf Michael Edmund Clarke, ''In the Eye of Power'' (doctoral thesis), Brisbane 2004, p37] {{webarchive |url=http://www.webcitation.org/5wQnNChmw?url=http://www4.gu.edu.au:8080/adt-root/uploads/approved/adt-QGU20061121.163131/public/02Whole.pdf |date=February 12, 2011 }}</ref> Mark Levene, a historian whose recent research interests focus on [[genocide]],<ref>[http://www.soton.ac.uk/history/profiles/levene1.html Dr. Mark Levene], [[Southampton University]], see "Areas where I can offer Postgraduate Supervision". Retrieved 2009-02-09.</ref> has stated that the extermination of the Dzungars was "arguably the eighteenth century genocide par excellence."<ref>A. Dirk Moses (2008). "''[https://books.google.com/books?id=RBgoNN4MG-YC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0#PPA188 Empire, Colony, Genocide: Conquest, Occupation, and Subaltern Resistance in World History]''". Berghahn Books. p.188. ISBN 1845454529</ref> The Dzungar population reached 600,000 in 1755.

About 200,000–250,000 Oirats migrated from Western Mongolia to [[Volga River]] in 1607 and established the [[Kalmyk Khanate]].The Torghuts were led by their Tayishi, [[Kho Orluk|Höö Örlög]]. Russia was concerned about their attack but the [[Kalmyks]] became Russian ally and a treaty to protect Southern Russian border was signed between the Kalmyk Khanate and Russia.In 1724 the Kalmyks came under control of [[Russia]]. By the early 18th century, there were approximately 300–350,000 Kalmyks and 15,000,000 Russians.<ref>[http://dic.academic.ru/dic.nsf/ruwiki/891673 Демографическая ситуация в современной России] '''(Russian)'''</ref> The [[Tsardom of Russia]] gradually chipped away at the autonomy of the Kalmyk Khanate. These policies, for instance, encouraged the establishment of Russian and German settlements on pastures the Kalmyks used to roam and feed their livestock. In addition, the Tsarist government imposed a council on the Kalmyk Khan, thereby diluting his authority, while continuing to expect the Kalmyk Khan to provide cavalry units to fight on behalf of Russia. The [[Russian Orthodox church]], by contrast, pressured [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] Kalmyks to adopt Orthodoxy.In January 1771, approximately 200,000 (170,000)<ref name="oirad.mn">[http://www.oirad.mn/2011/12/%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2-%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD-%D0%BD%D2%AF%D2%AF%D0%B4%D1%8D%D0%BB/ ТИВ ДАМНАСАН НҮҮДЭЛ] (Mongolian)</ref> Kalmyks began the migration from their pastures on the left bank of the [[Volga River]] to Dzungaria (Western Mongolia), through the territories of their  [[Bashkirs|Bashkir]] and [[Kazakhs|Kazakh]] enemies. The last Kalmyk khan [[Ubashi Khan|Ubashi]] led the migration to restore Mongolian independence. Ubashi Khan sent his 30,000 cavalries to the [[Russo-Turkish War (1768–74)|Russo-Turkish War]] in 1768–1769 to gain weapon before the migration.The Empress [[Catherine the Great]] ordered the Russian army, Bashkirs and Kazakhs to exterminate all migrants and the Empress abolished the Kalmyk Khanate.<ref name="oirad.mn"/><ref>[http://www.olloo.mn/modules.php?name=News&file=print&sid=1186139 Ижил мөрөн хүртэлх их нүүдэл] '''(Mongolian)'''</ref><ref>[http://www.shudarga.mn/news/10489.html Тал нутгийн Нүүдэлчин Халимагууд Эх нутаг Монгол руугаа тэмүүлсэн түүх] '''(Mongolian)'''</ref><ref>[http://www.hicheel.mn/index.php?module=menu&cmd=content&id=3007&menu_id=437 Баруун Монголын нүүдэл суудал] '''(Mongolian)'''</ref><ref>[http://new.hist.asu.ru/biblio/V2/45-54.pdf К вопросу о бегстве волжских калмыков в Джунгарию в 1771 году] '''(Russian)'''</ref> The [[Kyrgyzs]] attacked them near [[Balkhash Lake]]. About 100,000–150,000 Kalmyks who settled on the west bank of the [[Volga River]] could not cross the river because the river did not freeze in the winter of 1771 and Catherine the Great executed influential nobles of them. After seven months of travel, only one-third (66,073)<ref name="oirad.mn"/> of the original group reached Dzungaria (Balkhash Lake, western border of the Qing Empire).<ref>Michael Khodarkovsky (2002)."''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Ti51WfA68RYC&pg=&dq&hl=en#v=onepage&q=&f=false Russia's Steppe Frontier: The Making Of A Colonial Empire, 1500–1800]''". Indiana University Press. p.142. ISBN 0253217709</ref> The Qing Empire transmigrated the Kalmyks to five different areas to prevent their revolt and influential leaders of the Kalmyks died soon (killed by the Manchus). Russia states that Buryatia voluntarily merged with Russia in 1659 due to Mongolian oppression and the Kalmyks voluntarily accepted Russian rule in 1609 but only  [[Georgia (country)#Georgia in the Russian Empire|Georgia]] voluntarily accepted Russian rule.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=FIvp2uSOsIYC&pg=PA49&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=4#v=onepage&q&f=false Владимир Андреевич Хамутаев, Присоединение Бурятии к России: история, право, политика] '''(Russian)'''</ref><ref>[http://burinfo.org/news/kham_u Известный бурятский ученый Владимир Хамутаев собирается получить политическое убежище в США] '''(Russian)'''</ref>

[[File:Khalkhin Gol George Zhukov and Khorloogiin Choibalsan 1939.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Khorloogiin Choibalsan]], leader of the [[Mongolian People's Republic]] (right), and [[Georgy Zhukov]] consult during the [[Battle of Khalkhin Gol]] against Japanese troops, 1939]]

In the early 20th century, the late Qing government encouraged [[Han Chinese]] colonization of Mongolian lands under the name of "[[New Policies]]" or "New Administration" (xinzheng). As a result, some Mongol leaders (especially those of Outer Mongolia) decided to seek Mongolian independence. After the [[Xinhai Revolution]], the [[Mongolian Revolution of 1911|Mongolian Revolution on 30 November 1911]] in Outer Mongolia ended over 200-year rule of the Qing dynasty.

=== Post-Qing era ===
With the independence of Outer Mongolia, the Mongolian army controlled Khalkha and Khovd regions (modern day [[Uvs Province|Uvs]], [[Khovd Province|Khovd]], and [[Bayan-Ölgii Province|Bayan-Ölgii provinces]]), but Northern [[Xinjiang]] (the Altai and Ili regions of the Qing Empire), [[Upper Mongolia]], [[Barga Mongols|Barga]] and [[Inner Mongolia]] came under control of the newly formed [[Republic of China (1912–49)|Republic of China]]. On February 2, 1913 the [[Mongolia (1911–24)|Bogd Khanate of Mongolia]] sent Mongolian cavalries to "liberate" Inner Mongolia from China. [[Russia]] refused to sell weapons to the Bogd Khanate, and the Russian czar, [[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas II]], referred to it as "Mongolian [[imperialism]]". Additionally, the [[United Kingdom]] urged Russia to abolish Mongolian independence as it was concerned that "if Mongolians gain independence, then [[Central Asia]]ns will revolt". [[:mn:Таван замын байлдаан|10,000]] Khalkha and Inner Mongolian cavalries (about 3,500 Inner Mongols) defeated 70,000 Chinese soldiers and controlled almost all of Inner Mongolia; however, the Mongolian army retreated due to lack of weapons in 1914. 400 Mongol soldiers and 3,795 Chinese soldiers died in this war. The Khalkhas, Khovd Oirats, Buryats, Dzungarian Oirats, [[Upper Mongols]], [[Barga Mongols]], most Inner Mongolian and some Tuvan leaders sent statements to support Bogd Khan's call of [[Pan-Mongolism|Mongolian reunification]]. In reality however, most of them were too prudent or irresolute to attempt joining the Bogd Khan regime.<ref>Proceedings of the Fifth East Asian Altaistic Conference, December 26, 1979 – January 2, 1980, Taipei, China, p144</ref> Russia encouraged Mongolia to become an autonomous region of China in 1914. Mongolia lost [[Barga Mongols|Barga]], Dzungaria, [[Tuva]], Upper Mongolia and Inner Mongolia in the [[Treaty of Kyakhta (1915)|1915 Treaty of Kyakhta]].

In October 1919, the Republic of China occupied Mongolia after the suspicious deaths of Mongolian patriotic nobles. On 3 February 1921 the [[White movement|White Russian]] army—led by [[Baron Ungern]] and mainly consisting of Mongolian volunteer cavalries, and Buryat and Tatar [[cossacks]]—liberated the Mongolian [[Ulaanbaatar|capital]]. Baron Ungern's purpose was to find allies to defeat the [[Soviet Union]]. The Statement of Reunification of Mongolia was adopted by Mongolian [[People's Republic of Mongolia|revolutionist leaders]] in 1921. The Soviet, however, considered Mongolia to be Chinese territory in 1924 during secret meeting with the Republic of China. However, the Soviets officially recognized Mongolian independence in 1945 but carried out various policies (political, economic and cultural) against Mongolia until its fall in 1991 to prevent Pan-Mongolism and other [[List of active separatist movements in Asia#China (PRC)|irredentist]] [[List of active separatist movements in Europe#Russian Federation|movements]].

On 10 April 1932 Mongolians [[1932 armed uprising in Mongolia|revolted]] against the government's new policy and Soviets. The government and Soviet soldiers defeated the rebels in October.

The Buryats started to migrate to Mongolia in the 1900s due to Russian oppression. [[Joseph Stalin]]'s regime stopped the migration in 1930 and started a campaign of ethnic cleansing against newcomers and Mongolians. During the [[Stalinist repressions in Mongolia]] almost all adult Buryat men and 22–33,000 Mongols (3–5% of the total population; common citizens, monks, Pan-Mongolists, nationalists, patriots, hundreds military officers, nobles, intellectuals and elite people) were shot dead under Soviet orders.<ref>[http://www.olloo.mn/modules.php?name=News&file=print&sid=113303 Богд хааны жолооч хилс хэрэгт хэлмэгдсэн нь] '''(Mongolian)'''</ref><ref name="Death Tolls">[http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/warstat5.htm#Mong2 Twentieth Century Atlas – Death Tolls]</ref> Some authors also offer much higher estimates, up to 100,000 victims.<ref name="Death Tolls"/> Around the late 1930s the [[Mongolian People's Republic]] had an overall population of about 700,000 to 900,000 people.By 1939, Soviet said "We repressed too many people, the population of Mongolia is only hundred thousands". Proportion of victims in relation to the population of the country is much higher than the corresponding figures of the [[Great Purge]] in the Soviet Union.

The [[Manchukuo]] (1932–1945), [[puppet state]] of the [[Empire of Japan]] (1868–1947) invaded [[Barga Mongols|Barga]] and some part of Inner Mongolia with Japanese help. The Mongolian army advanced to the [[Great Wall of China]] during the [[Soviet–Japanese War (1945)|Soviet–Japanese War of 1945]] (Mongolian name:Liberation War of 1945). Japan forced Inner Mongolian and Barga people to fight against Mongolians but they surrendered to Mongolians and started to fight against their Japanese and Manchu allies. Marshal [[Khorloogiin Choibalsan]] called Inner Mongolians and Xinjiang Oirats to migrate to Mongolia during the war but the [[Soviet Army]] blocked Inner Mongolian migrants way. It was a part of Pan-Mongolian plan and few Oirats and Inner Mongols ([[Huuchid]]s, Bargas, [[Tümed]]s, [[Üzemchin Mongols|about 800 Uzemchins]]) [[Demographics of Mongolia#Ethnic groups of Mongolia|arrived]]. Inner Mongolian leaders carried out active policy to merge Inner Mongolia with Mongolia since 1911. They founded the [[Inner Mongolian Army]] in 1929 but the Inner Mongolian Army disbanded after ending World War II. The Japanese Empire supported Pan-Mongolism since the 1910s but there have never been active relations between Mongolia and Imperial Japan due to Russian resistance. Inner Mongolian nominally independent [[Mengjiang]] state (1936–1945) was established with support of Japan in 1936 also some Buryat and Inner Mongol nobles founded Pan-Mongolist government with support of Japan in 1919.

[[File:Monumento ruso en Ulan Bator, Mongolia.jpg|thumb|250px|World War II [[Zaisan Memorial]], Ulaan Baatar, from the [[People's Republic of Mongolia]] era.]]

The Inner Mongols established the short-lived Republic of Inner Mongolia in 1945.

Another part of Choibalsan's plan was to merge Inner Mongolia and Dzungaria with Mongolia. By 1945, Chinese communist leader [[Mao Zedong]] requested Soviet to stop Pan-Mongolism because China lost its control over Inner Mongolia and without Inner Mongolian support the Communists were unable to defeat Japan and [[Kuomintang]].

Mongolia and Soviet-supported Xinjiang [[Uyghurs]] and [[Kazakhs]]' [[:Category:East Turkestan independence movement|separatist]] [[First East Turkestan Republic|movement]] in the 1930-1940s. By 1945, Soviet refused to support them after its alliance with the Communist Party of China and Mongolia interrupted its relations with the separatists under pressure of Soviet. Xinjiang Oirat's militant groups operated together the Turkic peoples but the Oirats did not have the leading role due to their small population. [[Basmachi movement|Basmachi]]s or Turkic and [[Tajiks|Tajik]] militants fought to liberate [[Central Asia]] ([[Soviet Central Asia]]) until 1942.

On February 2, 1913 the [[Treaty of friendship and alliance between the Government of Mongolia and Tibet]] was signed. Mongolian agents and Bogd Khan disrupted Soviet secret operations in [[Tibet (1912-51)|Tibet]] to change its regime in the 1920s.

On 27 October 1961 UN recognized Mongolian independence after ending Western boycotts.

The [[Tsardom of Russia]], [[Russian Empire]], Soviet Union, [[Republic of China|capitalist]] and communist [[China]] [[Soviet war crimes|performed]] many [[State terrorism|genocide]] [[Human rights in Russia#Ethnic minorities|actions]] [[Human rights of ethnic minorities in China|against]] the Mongols (assimilate, reduce the population, [[Cultural genocide|extinguish]] the language, culture, tradition, history, religion and [[ethnic identity]]). [[Peter the Great]] said: "The headwaters of the [[Yenisei River]] must be Russian land".<ref>L.Jamsran, Mongol states in Russia, 1995</ref> Russian Empire sent the Kalmyks and Buryats to war to reduce the populations ([[World War I]] and other wars).Soviet scientists attempted to convince the Kalmyks and Buryats that they're not the Mongols during the 20th century (demongolization policy). 35,000 Buryats were killed during [[:mn:Буриадын ард түмний бослого|the rebellion of 1927]] and around one-third of Buryat population in Russia died in the 1900s–1950s.<ref>[http://www.pandia.ru/text/77/152/9539.php Войны ХХ века и их жертвы /тысяч человек/] '''(Russian)'''</ref><ref>[http://horidoimergen.blog.gogo.mn/read/entry128563 Буриад-Монголын үндэстний хөдөлгөөн, тулгамдсан асуудлууд] '''(Mongolian)'''</ref> 10,000 Buryats of the Buryat-Mongol Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic were massacred by Stalin's order in the 1930s.<ref>[http://baigalmirny.ru/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1336&Itemid=96 История (до и начало XX века)] '''(Russian)'''</ref> In 1919 the Buryats established a small [[theocracy|theocratic]] Balagad state in [[Kizhinginsky District]] of Russia and the Buryat's state fell in 1926. In 1958, the name "Mongol" was removed from the name of the Buryat-Mongol Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic.

On 22 January 1922 Mongolia proposed to migrate the Kalmyks during the Kalmykian Famine but Russia refused.71–72,000 (93,000?; around half of the population) Kalmyks died during the famine.<ref name="Munkhbayar">[http://sonin.mn/blog/Munkhbayar/21142 XX зууны 20, 30-аад онд халимагуудын 98 хувь аймшигт өлсгөлөнд автсан] '''(Mongolian)'''</ref> The Kalmyks revolted against Russia in 1926, 1930 and 1942–1943. In 1913, [[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas II]], king of Russia, said: "We need to prevent from [[Volga River|Volga]] [[Tatars]]. But the Kalmyks are more dangerous than them because they are the Mongols so send them to war to reduce the population".<ref name="ulstor.com">[http://www.ulstor.com/2010/10/blog-post_1768.html Халимагийн эмгэнэлт түүхээс] '''(Mongolian)'''</ref> On 23 April 1923 [[Joseph Stalin]], communist leader of Russia, said: "We are carrying out wrong policy on the Kalmyks who related to the Mongols.Our policy is too peaceful".<ref name="ulstor.com"/> In March 1927, Soviet deported 20,000 Kalmyks to Siberia, [[tundra]] and [[Karelia]].The Kalmyks founded sovereign [[List of Mongol states#Modern states|Republic of Oirat-Kalmyk]] on 22 March 1930.<ref name="ulstor.com"/> The Oirat's state had a small army and 200 Kalmyk soldiers defeated 1,700 Soviet soldiers in Durvud province of Kalmykia but the Oirat's state destroyed by the Soviet Army in 1930. Kalmykian [[nationalism|nationalists]] and Pan-Mongolists attempted to migrate Kalmyks to Mongolia in the 1920s.Mongolia suggested to migrate the Soviet Union's Mongols to Mongolia in the 1920s but Russia refused the suggest.

Russia [[Kalmyk deportations of 1943|deported]] all Kalmyks to [[Siberia]] in 1943 and around half of (97–98,000) Kalmyk people deported to [[Siberia]] died before being allowed to return home in 1957.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/4580467.stm Regions and territories: Kalmykia]</ref> The government of the Soviet Union forbade teaching [[Kalmyk language]] during the deportation.The Kalmyks' main purpose was to migrate to Mongolia and many Kalmyks joined the German Army.Marshal [[Khorloogiin Choibalsan]] attempted to migrate the deportees to Mongolia and he met with them in Siberia during his visit to Russia. Under the Law of the Russian Federation of April 26, 1991 "On Rehabilitation of Exiled Peoples" repressions against Kalmyks and other peoples were qualified as an act of genocide.

After the end of World War II, the [[Chinese Civil War]] resumed between the [[Chinese Nationalists]] (Kuomintang), led by [[Chiang Kai-shek]], and the [[Chinese Communist Party]], led by [[Mao Zedong]]. In December 1949, Chiang evacuated his government to Taiwan. Hundred thousands Inner Mongols were massacred during the [[Cultural Revolution]] in the 1960s and China forbade Mongol traditions, celebrities and teaching Mongolic languages during the revolution.In Inner Mongolia, some 790,000 people were persecuted. Approximately 1,000,000 Inner Mongols were killed during the 20th century.<ref name="IMPP">[[Inner Mongolian People's Party]]</ref> In 1960 Chinese newspaper wrote that "Han Chinese [[ethnic identity]] must be Chinese minorities ethnic identity".China carried out active propaganda war against Mongolia until the 1980s and the Chinese [[People's Liberation Army]] (PLA) carried out many raids into Mongolian [[:Category:China–Mongolia border|border]] provinces during the 1960-1980s. China is carrying out "War of Map" against neighbouring countries since the 1950s.<ref>[http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China/MA27Ad02.html China plays long game on border disputes]</ref>

On 3 October 2002 the [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Republic of China)|Ministry of Foreign Affairs]] announced that Taiwan [[Foreign relations of Taiwan#Mongolia|recognizes]] Mongolia as an independent country,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/archives/2002/10/11/0000175237|title=Mongolian office to ride into Taipei by end of the year|publisher=Taipei Times |date=2002-10-11|accessdate=2009-05-28|quote=In October 1945, the people of Outer Mongolia voted for independence, gaining the recognition of many countries, including the Republic of China. (...) Due to a souring of relations with the Soviet Union in the early 1950s, however, the ROC revoked recognition of Outer Mongolia, reclaiming it as ROC territory.}}</ref> although no legislative actions were taken to address concerns over its constitutional claims to Mongolia.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/1842387.stm|title=Taiwan 'embassy' changes anger China |publisher=BBC News|date=2002-02-26 |accessdate=2009-05-28}}</ref> Offices established to support Taipei's claims over Outer Mongolia, such as the [[Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mtac.gov.tw/pages.php?lang=5 |title=The History of MTAC|publisher=Mongolian & Tibetan Affairs Commission|accessdate=2009-05-07}}</ref> lie dormant.

[[Agin-Buryat Okrug]] and [[Ust-Orda Buryat Okrug]]s merged with [[Irkutsk Oblast]] and [[Chita Oblast]] in 2008 despite Buryats' resistance. The Inner Mongols revolted against China in [[2011 Inner Mongolia unrest|2011]]. The [[Inner Mongolian People's Party]] is a member of the [[Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization]]<ref>[http://www.unpo.org/members/7883 unpo.org]</ref> and Inner Mongolian leaders are [[:Category:Inner Mongolian independence movement|attempting]] to establish sovereign state or merge Inner Mongolia with Mongolia.

[[File:Gurvger.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A Mongolic [[yurt|Ger]]]]

== Language ==
{{Main|Mongolic languages}}

Mongolian is the official national language of [[Mongolia]], where it is spoken by nearly 2.8 million people (2010 estimate),<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite book|last1=Janhunen|first1=Juha|title=Mongolian|date=November 29, 2012|publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company|page=11|chapter=1}}</ref> and the official provincial language of China's [[Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region]], where there are at least 4.1 million ethnic Mongols.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Tsung|first1=Linda|title=Language Power and Hierarchy: Multilingual Education in China|date=October 27, 2014|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic|page=59|chapter=3}}</ref> Across the whole of China, the language is spoken by roughly half of the country's 5.8 million ethnic Mongols (2005 estimate)<ref name="ReferenceA"/> However, the exact number of Mongolian speakers in China is unknown, as there is no data available on the language proficiency of that country's citizens. The use of Mongolian in China, specifically in Inner Mongolia, has witnessed periods of decline and revival over the last few hundred years. The language experienced a decline during the late Qing period, a revival between 1947 and 1965, a second decline between 1966 and 1976, a second revival between 1977 and 1992, and a third decline between 1995 and 2012.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Tsung|first1=Linda|title=Language Power and Hierarchy: Multilingual Education in China|date=October 27, 2014|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic|chapter=3}}</ref> However, in spite of the decline of the Mongolian language in some of Inner Mongolia's urban areas and educational spheres, the ethnic identity of the urbanized Chinese-speaking Mongols is most likely going to survive due to the presence of urban ethnic communities.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Iredale|first1=Robyn|last2=Bilik|first2=Naran|last3=Fei|first3=Guo|title=China's Minorities on the Move: Selected Case Studies|date=August 2, 2003|page=84|chapter=4}}</ref> The multilingual situation in Inner Mongolia does not appear to obstruct efforts by ethnic Mongols to preserve their language.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Janhunen|first1=Juha|title=Mongolian|date=November 29, 2012|publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company|page=16|chapter=1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Otsuka|first1=Hitomi|title=More Morphologies: Contributions to the Festival of Languages, Bremen, 17 Sep to 7 Oct, 2009|date=30 Nov 2012|page=99|chapter=6}}</ref> Although an unknown number of Mongols in China, such as the Tumets, may have completely or partially lost the ability to speak their language, they are still registered as ethnic Mongols and continue to identify themselves as ethnic Mongols.<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref>{{cite book|last1=Iredale|first1=Robyn|title=China's Minorities on the Move: Selected Case Studies|date=August 2, 2003|publisher=Routledge|pages=56, 64–67|chapter=3}}</ref> The children of inter-ethnic Mongol-Chinese marriages also claim to be and are registered as ethnic Mongols.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Janhunen|first1=Juha|title=Mongolian|date=November 29, 2012|publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company|page=11|chapter=1}}{{cite book|last1=Iredale|first1=Robyn|last2=Bilik|first2=Naran|last3=Fei|first3=Guo|title=China's Minorities on the Move: Selected Case Studies|date=August 2, 2003|page=61|chapter=3}}</ref>

The specific origin of the Mongolic languages and associated tribes is unclear. Linguists have traditionally proposed a link to the [[Tungusic languages|Tungusic]] and [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] language families, included alongside Mongolic in the broader group of [[Altaic languages]], though this remains controversial. Today the Mongolian peoples speak at least one of several Mongolic languages including Mongolian, Buryat, Oirat, Dongxiang, Tu, Bonan, Hazaragi, and Aimaq. Additionally, many Mongols speak either Russian or Mandarin Chinese as languages of inter-ethnic communication.

== Religion ==
{{Main|Buddhism in Mongolia|Shamanism in Mongolia}}

The original religion of the Mongolic peoples was [[Shamanism]]. The Xianbei came in contact with [[Confucianism]] and [[Daoism]] but eventually adopted [[Buddhism]]. However, the Xianbeis in Mongolia and Rourans followed a form of Shamanism. In the 5th century the Buddhist monk Dharmapriya was proclaimed State Teacher of the Rouran Khaganate and given 3000 families and some Rouran nobles became Buddhists. In 511 the Rouran [[Douluofubadoufa Khan]] sent Hong Xuan to the Tuoba court with a pearl-encrusted statue of the Buddha as a gift. The Tuoba Xianbei and Khitans were mostly Buddhists, although they still retained their original Shamanism. The Tuoba had a "sacrificial castle" to the west of their capital where ceremonies to spirits took place. Wooden statues of the spirits were erected on top of this sacrificial castle. One ritual involved seven princes with milk offerings who ascended the stairs with 20 female shamans and offered prayers, sprinkling the statues with the sacred milk. The Khitan had their holiest shrine on Mount Muye where portraits of their earliest ancestor Qishou Khagan, his wife Kedun and eight sons were kept in two temples. Mongolic peoples were also exposed to [[Zoroastrianism]], [[Manicheism]], [[Nestorianism]], [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodoxy]] and [[Islam]] from the west. The Mongolic peoples, in particular the Borjigin, had their holiest shrine on [[Burkhan Khaldun|Mount Burkhan Khaldun]] where their ancestor Börte Chono (Blue Wolf) and Goo Maral (Beautiful Doe) had given birth to them. [[Genghis Khan]] usually fasted, prayed and meditated on this mountain before his campaigns. As a young man he had thanked the mountain for saving his life and prayed at the foot of the mountain sprinkling offerings and bowing nine times to the east with his belt around his neck and his hat held at his chest. Genghis Khan kept a close watch on the Mongolic supreme shaman Kokochu Teb who sometimes conflicted with his authority. Later the imperial cult of Genghis Khan (centered on the [[Mausoleum of Genghis Khan|eight white gers]] and nine white banners in [[Ordos Loop|Ordos]]) grew into a highly organized indigenous religion with scriptures in the [[Mongolian script]]. Indigenous moral precepts of the Mongolic peoples were enshrined in oral wisdom sayings (now collected in several volumes), the anda (blood-brother) system and ancient texts such as the ''Chinggis-un Bilig'' (Wisdom of Genghis) and ''Oyun Tulkhuur'' (Key of Intelligence). These moral precepts were expressed in poetic form and mainly involved truthfulness, fidelity, help in hardship, unity, self-control, fortitude, veneration of nature, veneration of the state and veneration of parents.

[[File:Tamerlan.jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[Timur]] of Mongolic origin himself had converted almost all the [[Borjigin]] leaders to [[Islam]].]]

In 1254 [[Möngke Khan]] organized a formal religious debate (in which [[William of Rubruck]] took part) between Christians, Muslims and Buddhists in [[Karakorum]], a cosmopolitan city of many religions. The Mongolic Empire was known for its religious tolerance, but had a special leaning towards Buddhism and was sympathetic towards Christianity while still worshipping [[Tengri]]. The Mongolic leader [[Abaqa Khan]] sent a delegation of 13–16 to the [[Second Council of Lyon]] (1274), which created a great stir, particularly when their leader 'Zaganus' underwent a public baptism. [[Yahballaha III]] (1245–1317) and [[Rabban Bar Sauma]] (c. 1220–1294) were famous Mongolic Nestorian Christians. The [[Keraites]] in central Mongolia were Christian. The western Khanates, however, eventually adopted Islam (under [[Berke]] and [[Ghazan]]) and the Turkic languages (because of its commercial importance), although allegiance to the Great Khan and limited use of the Mongolic languages can be seen even in the 1330s. The Mongolic nobility during the [[Yuan dynasty]] studied Confucianism, built Confucian temples (including [[Beijing Confucius Temple]]) and translated Confucian works into Mongolic but mainly followed the [[Sakya]] school of Tibetan Buddhism under [[Drogön Chögyal Phagpa|Phags-pa Lama]]. The general populace still practised [[Shamanism]]. [[Dongxiang people|Dongxiang]] and [[Bonan people|Bonan Mongols]] adopted Islam, as did [[Moghol language|Moghol]]-speaking peoples in Afghanistan. In the 1576 the [[Gelug]] school of Tibetan Buddhism became the state religion of the Mongolia. The Red Hat sect of Tibetan Buddhism coexisted with the Gelug Yellow Hat sect. Shamanism was absorbed into the [[Buddhism in Mongolia|state religion]] while being marginalized in its purer forms, later only surviving in far northern Mongolia. Monks were some of the leading intellectuals in Mongolia, responsible for much of the literature and art of the pre-modern period. Many Buddhist philosophical works lost in Tibet and elsewhere are preserved in older and purer form in Mongolian ancient texts (e.g. the Mongol [[Kangyur|Kanjur]]). [[Zanabazar]] (1635–1723), [[Zaya Pandita]] (1599–1662) and [[Danzanravjaa]] (1803–1856) are among the most famous Mongol holy men. The 4th Dalai Lama [[Yonten Gyatso]] (1589–1617), a Mongol himself, was the only non-Tibetan [[Dalai Lama]].The name is a combination of the Mongolian word dalai meaning "ocean" and the Tibetan word  (bla-ma) meaning "guru, teacher, mentor".[1] Many Buryats became Orthodox Christians due to the Russian expansion. During the socialist period religion was officially banned, although it was practiced in clandestine circles. Today, a sizable proportion of Mongolic peoples are [[atheism|atheist]] or [[agnosticism|agnostic]]. In the most recent census in Mongolia, almost forty percent of the population reported as being atheist, while the majority religion was Tibetan Buddhism, with 53%.<ref>[http://www.toollogo2010.mn/doc/Main%20results_20110615_to%20EZBH_for%20print.pdf National Census 2010 Preliminary results] '''(Mongolian)'''</ref> Having survived suppression by the Communists, Buddhism among the Eastern, Northern, Southern and Western Mongols is today primarily of the [[Gelugpa]] (Yellow Hat sect) school of [[Tibetan Buddhism]]. There is a strong shamanistic influence in the Gelugpa sect among the Mongols.{{clear left}}

[[File:Babur and Humayun.jpg|thumb|250px|The [[Mughal Emperor]] [[Babur]] and his heir [[Humayun]], The word ''Mughal'', is derived from the Persian word for Mongol.]]

== Military ==
{{Main|Mongol military tactics and organization}}

They battled against the most powerful armies and warriors in Eurasia.{{citation needed|date=February 2013}} The beating of the kettle and smoke signals were signs for the start of battle. One battle formation that they used consisted of five squadrons or units. The typical squadrons were divided by ranks. The first two ranks were in the front. These warriors had the heaviest armor and weapons. The back three ranks broke out between the front ranks and attacked first with their arrows.<ref>Per Inge Oestmoen. [http://www.coldsiberia.org/monmight.htm "The Mongo Military Might."] ''Cold Siberia''. N.p., 18 Jan. 2002. Retrieved on 12 November 2012</ref> The forces simply kept their space from the enemy and killed them with arrow fire, during which time "archers did not aim at a specific target, but shot their arrows at a high path into a set 'killing zone' or target area."<ref>[http://www.thepicaproject.org/?page_id=522 Matthew Barnes. "The Mongol War Machine: How Were the Mongols Able to Forge the Largest Contiguous Land Empire in History? |." ''The Pica A Global Research Organization''. Pica, n.d. 14 November 2012]</ref> Mongolics also took hold of engineers from the defeated armies. They made engineers a permanent part of their army, so that their weapons and machinery were complex and efficient.<ref>Jack Weatherford , ''Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World.'' (New York: Crown, 2004.), 94.</ref>

== Kinship and family life ==
{{See also|Society of the Mongol Empire}}

The traditional Mongol family was patriarchal, patrilineal and patrilocal. Wives were brought for each of the sons, while daughters were married off to other clans. Wife-taking clans stood in a relation of inferiority to wife-giving clans. Thus wife-giving clans were considered "elder" or "bigger" in relation to wife-taking clans, who were considered "younger" or "smaller".<ref>Vreeland 1962:160</ref><ref>Aberle 1953:23–24</ref> This distinction, symbolized in terms of "elder" and "younger" or "bigger" and "smaller", was carried into the clan and family as well, and all members of a lineage were terminologically distinguished by generation and age, with senior superior to junior.

In the traditional Mongolian family, each son received a part of the family herd as he married, with the elder son receiving more than the younger son. The youngest son would remain in the parental tent caring for his parents, and after their death he would inherit the parental tent in addition to his own part of the herd. This inheritance system was mandated by law codes such as the [[Yassa]], created by [[Genghis Khan]].<ref>[http://www.mypolice.ca/research_and_publications/MongolianLawCodeYasa.htm THE INFLUENCE OF THE GREAT CODE “YASA” ON THE MONGOLIAN EMPIRE]</ref> Likewise, each son inherited a part of the family's camping lands and pastures, with the elder son receiving more than the younger son. The eldest son inherited the farthest camping lands and pastures, and each son in turn inherited camping lands and pastures closer to the family tent until the youngest son inherited the camping lands and pastures immediately surrounding the family tent. Family units would often remain near each other and in close cooperation, though extended families would inevitably break up after a few generations. It is probable that the Yasa simply put into written law the principles of customary law.
{{quotation|It is apparent that in many cases, for example in family instructions, the yasa tacitly accepted the principles of customary law and avoided any interference with them. For example, Riasanovsky said that killing the man or the woman in case of adultery is a good illustration. Yasa permitted the institutions of polygamy and concubinage so characteristic of southerly nomadic peoples. Children born of concubines were legitimate. Seniority of children derived their status from their mother. Eldest son received more than the youngest after the death of father. But the latter inherited the household of the father. Children of concubines also received a share in the inheritance, in accordance with the instructions of their father (or with custom.)|Nilgün Dalkesen|Gender roles and women's status in Central Asia and Anatolia between the thirteenth and sixteenth centuries<ref>http://etd.lib.metu.edu.tr/upload/12608663/index.pdf</ref>}}

After the family, the next largest social units were the subclan and clan. These units were derived from groups claiming patrilineal descent from a common ancestor, ranked in order of seniority (the "conical clan"). By the [[Chingissid]] era this ranking was symbolically expressed at formal feasts, in which tribal chieftains were seated and received particular portions of the slaughtered animal according to their status.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=qcSsoJ0IXawC&pg=PA77&lpg=PA77&dq=%22Mongols%22+%22seniority%22+%22conical+clan%22&source=bl&ots=izJzxLqDVa&sig=2qSIYF2HIqY64F_EVm1LhYZMSeI&hl=es&sa=X&ei=4qGoUYz1M63H7AbD9YC4Aw&ved=0CDoQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%22Mongols%22%20%22seniority%22%20%22conical%20clan%22&f=false Agricultural and pastoral societies in ancient and classical history edited by Adas]</ref> The lineage structure of [[Central Asia]] had three different modes. It was organized on the basis of genealogical distance, or the proximity of individuals to one another on a graph of kinship; generational distance, or the rank of generation in relation to a common ancestor, and birth order, the rank of brothers in relation to each another.<ref>Cuisenier (1975:67)</ref> The paternal descent lines were collaterally ranked according to the birth of their founders, and were thus considered senior and junior to each other. Of the various collateral patrilines, the senior in order of descent from the founding ancestor, the line of eldest sons, was the most noble. In the steppe, no one had his exact equal; everyone found his place in a system of collaterally ranked lines of descent from a common ancestor.<ref>Krader (1963:322, 269)</ref> It was according to this idiom of superiority and inferiority of lineages derived from birth order that legal claims to superior rank were couched.<ref>Kinship Structure and Political Authority: The Middle East and Central Asia Charles Lindholm Comparative Studies in Society and History Vol. 28, No. 2 (Apr., 1986), pp. 334–355 Published by: Cambridge University Press Article Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/178975, Charles Lindholm</ref>

The Mongol kinship is one of a particular patrilineal type classed as [[Omaha kinship|Omaha]], in which relatives are grouped together under separate terms that crosscut generations, age, and even sexual difference. Thus, a man's father's sister's children, his sister's children, and his daughter's children are all called by another term. A further attribute is strict terminological differentiation of siblings according to seniority.

The division of Mongolian society into senior elite lineages and subordinate junior lineages was waning by the twentieth century. During the 1920s the [[Communist]] regime was established. The remnants of the Mongolian aristocracy fought alongside the [[Japan]]ese and against [[China|Chinese]], [[Soviets]] and Communist Mongols during [[World War II]], but were defeated.

The anthropologist Herbert Harold Vreeland visited three Mongol communities in 1920 and published a highly detailed book with the results of his fieldwork, ''Mongol community and kinship structure''.<ref>[http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015008324819;view=1up;seq=1 Mongol community and kinship structure. Vreeland, Herbert Harold, 1920]</ref>

== Historical population ==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year !! Population !! Notes
|-
| 1 AD || 1–2,000,000? ||
|-
| 1000 || 2,500,000? ||[[Liao dynasty#Government|750,000 Khitans]]
|-
| 1200 || 2,600,000? || [[List of medieval Mongolian tribes and clans|1,5–2,000,000]] Mongols
|-
| 1600 || 2,300,000? ||77,000<ref>http://www.bur-culture.ru/index.php?id=news-detail&tx_ttnews[tt_news]=42&cHash=effe903f9ae6737362277ed761d6c2ca Традиционная материальная культура бурятского этноса Предбайкалья. Этногенез и расселение. Средовая культура бурят (Russian)</ref><ref>[http://www.ugaizam.narod.ru/num_012/n_0012_001.html П.Б. Абзаев. Буряты на рубеже XX-XXI вв. Численность, состав, занятия] (Russian)</ref> Buryats; 600,000 Khalkhas
|-
|1700 ||2,600,000? ||600,000 Khalkhas; 1,100,000? [[Oirats]]: 600,000 [[Zunghar Khanate|Zunghars]], 200–250,000? [[Kalmyk people#Demographics|Kalmyks]], 200,000 [[Upper Mongols]]<ref name="montaa.mn"/>
|-
|1800 ||2,000,000? ||600,000 Khalkhas; 440,000? Oirats: 120,000 Zunghars, 120,000? Upper Mongols
|-
| 1900||2,300,000?||[[Buryatia#Ethnic groups|283,383]]<ref>[http://www.kyrgyz.ru/?page=225 Б.З. Нанзатов,ПЛЕМЕННОЙ СОСТАВ БУРЯТ В XIX ВЕКЕ] '''(Russian)'''</ref> Buryats (1897); 500,000? Khalkhas (1911); 380,000 Oirats: 70,000? Mongolian Oirats (1911), 190,648 Kalmyks (1897), 70,000? Dzungarian and [[Southern Mongolia]]n Oirats, 50,000 Upper Mongols;<ref name="montaa.mn"/> 1,500,000? [[Southern Mongols]] (1911)
|-
| 1927 ||2,100,000? ||'''600,000 Mongolians'''<ref>[http://www.burtgel.gov.mn/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=726:civilregister&catid=178:history&Itemid=374 ИРГЭНИЙ БҮРТГЭЛИЙН ТҮҮХЭН ТОЙМ] '''(Mongolian)'''</ref> — 230,000? Buryats: 15,000? Mongolian Buryats, [[Buryatia#Ethnic groups|214,957]] Buryats in Russia (1926); 500,000? Khalkhas (1927); 330,000? Oirats: 70,000 Mongolian Oirats, 128,809 Kalmyks (1926)
|-
|1956||2,500,000?||228,647 Buryats: 24,625 Mongolian Buryats (1956), 135,798 Buryats of the ([[Buryat Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic]]; 1959), [[Agin-Buryat Okrug#Ethnic groups|23,374 Agin-Buryats]] (1959), [[Ust-Orda Buryat Okrug#Ethnic groups|44,850 Ust-Orda Buryats]] (1959); [[Demographics of Mongolia#Ethnic groups of Mongolia|639,141 Khalkhas]] (1956); 240,000? Oirats: 77,996 Mongolian Oirats (1956),  100,603 Kalmyks (1959),  [[Demographics of China#Ethnic groups|1,462,956 Mongols in China]] (1953)
|-
|1980||4,300,000?||317,966? Buryats: 29,802 Mongolian Buryats (1979), 206,860 [[Buryatia]]n Buryats (1979), 45,436 Usta-Orda Buryats (1979), 35,868 Agin-Buryats (1979); 1,271,086 Khalkhas; 398,339 Oirats: 127,328 Mongolian Oirats (1979), 140,103 Kalmyks (1979), 2,153,000 Southern Mongols (1981)<ref name="lupm.org">[http://www.lupm.org/mn/pages/101026mn.htm Түмэдхүү, ӨМӨЗО-НЫ ХҮН АМЫН ХУВИРАЛТЫН ЗУРГИЙГ ҮЗЭЭД] (Southern) Mongolian Liberal Union Party '''(Mongolian)''' Millions of [[Han Chinese]] registered as "Mongol" and "[[Manchu people|Manchu]]" according to Chinese policy since the 1980s.There is no enough information about [[Ethnic minorities in China|Chinese ethnic minorities]] due to the government policy.</ref><ref name="sodonmedeelel.blog.gogo.mn">[http://sodonmedeelel.blog.gogo.mn/read/entry464126 Өвөр Монголын хүн ам] '''(Mongolian)'''</ref>
|-
| 1990 ||4,700,000?||376,629 Buryats: 35,444 Mongolian Buryats (1989), 249,525 Buryatian Buryats (1989), 49,298 Usta-Orda Buryats (1989), 42,362 Agin-Buryats (1989); 1,654,221 Khalkhas; 470,000? Oirats: 161,803 Mongolian Oirats (1989), 165,103 Kalmyks (1989), 33,000 Upper Mongols (1987);<ref>[http://archive.is/20121209163810/http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:xtpd1oBnb-0J:www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name%3Dcn+kok+nur+mongols+statistic+populations&cd=1&hl=mn&ct=clnk&gl=mn ethnologue.com information]</ref>
|-
| 2010 || 5–9,200,000?<ref>768,000 families in Mongolia (2013).</ref> ||500,000? Buryats (45–75,000 Mongolian Buryats, 10,000 [[Hulunbuir]] Buryats); 2,300,000 Khalkhas (including [[Dariganga Mongols|Dariganga]], [[Darkhad]], [[Eljigin]] and [[Sartuul]]); 638,372 [[Oirats]]: 183,372 Kalmyks, 205,000 Mongolian Oirats, 90–100, 000 Upper Mongols, 2010 — 140,000 Xinjiang Oirats; 2013 — 190,000? Xinjiang Oirats: 100,000? Torghuts (Kalmyks), 40–50,000? Olots, 40,000? other Oirats: mainly Khoshuts; 1,5–4,000,000? 5,700,000? Southern Mongols<ref name="lupm.org"/>
|}

[[File:Mongols-map.png|thumb|450px|right|This map shows the boundary of 13th century [[Mongol Empire]] and location of today's Mongols in modern Mongolia, Russia and China.]]

== Geographic distribution ==
Today, the majority of Mongols live in the modern state of Mongolia, China (mainly Inner Mongolia and Xinjiang), Russia, [[Kyrgyzstan]] and Afghanistan.

The differentiation between tribes and peoples (ethnic groups) is handled differently depending on the country. The [[Tumed]], [[Chahar (Mongols)|Chahar]], [[Ordos people|Ordos]], [[Barga Mongols|Barga]], [[Altai Uriankhai]], [[Buryats]], [[Dörbed|Dörböd]] (Dörvöd, Dörbed), [[Torguud]], [[Dariganga Mongols|Dariganga]], [[Üzemchin]] (or Üzümchin), [[Bayads]], [[Khoton]], [[Myangad]] (Mingad), [[Eljigin]], [[Zakhchin]], [[Darkhad]], and [[Olots]] (or Öölds or Ölöts) are all considered as tribes of the Mongols.

=== Subgroups ===
The Eastern Mongols are mainly concentrated in Mongolia, including the [[Khalkha Mongols|Khalkha]], [[Eljigin|Eljigin Khalkha]], [[Darkhad]], [[Sartuul|Sartuul Khalkha]], and [[Dariganga Mongols|Dariganga]] (Khalkha).

The [[Buryats]] are mainly concentrated in their homeland, the [[Buryat Republic]], a federal subject of Russia. They are the major northern subgroup of the Mongols. The Barga Mongols are mainly concentrated in Inner Mongolia, China, along with the [[Buryats]] and [[Hamnigan]].

The Southern or Inner Mongols mainly are concentrated in [[Inner Mongolia]], China. They comprise the [[Abaga Mongols]], [[Abaganar]], [[Aohan]], [[Asud]], [[Baarins]], [[Chahars|Chahar]], [[Durved]], [[Gorlos]], [[Kharchin]], [[Hishigten]], [[Khorchin]], [[Huuchid]], [[Jalaid]], [[Jaruud]], [[Muumyangan]], [[Naiman (Southern Mongols)]], [[Onnigud]], [[Ordos Mongols|Ordos]], [[Sunud]], [[Tümed]], [[Urad Mongols|Urad]], and [[Uzemchin]].

The Western Mongols or [[Oirats]] are mainly concentrated in Western Mongolia:
*184,000 Kalmyks (2010) — Kalmykia, Russia
*205,000 Mongolian Oirats (2010)
*140,000 Oirats (2010) — [[Xinjiang]] region, China
*90,000 Upper Mongols (2010) — [[Qinghai]] region, China. The Khoshuts are the major subgroup of the Upper Mongols, along with the [[Choros]], [[Khalkha]] and [[Torghut]]s.
*12,000 [[Sart Kalmyks]] (Zungharian descents) (2012) — [[Kyrgyzstan]]. Religion: [[Sunni Islam]].

[[Altai Uriankhai]], [[Baatud]], [[Bayads|Bayad]], [[Chantuu]], [[Choros]], [[Durvud]], [[Khoshut]], [[Khoid]], [[Khoton]], [[Myangad]], [[Olots]],  [[Sart Kalmyks]] (mainly Olots), [[Torghut]], [[Zakhchin]].
*[[Kalmyks]] — [[Baatud]], [[Buzava]], [[Choros]], [[Durvud]], [[Khoid]], [[Olots]], [[Torghut]].
*[[Upper Mongols|Upper Mongolian Oirats]] — [[Choros]], [[Khoshut]], [[Torghut]].

=== Mongolia ===
{{See also|Demographics of Mongolia}}
In modern-day Mongolia, Mongols make up approximately 95% of the population, with the largest ethnic group being [[Khalkha Mongols]], followed by Buryats, both belonging to the Eastern Mongolic peoples. They are followed by Oirats, who belong to the Western Mongolic peoples.

Mongolian ethnic groups:
[[Baarins|Baarin]], [[Baatud]], [[Barga Mongols|Barga]], [[Bayad]], [[Buryats|Buryat]],
[[Chahar Mongols|Selenge Chahar]], [[Chantuu]], [[Darkhad]], [[Dariganga Mongols|Dariganga]]
[[Dörbet Oirat]], [[Eljigin]],  [[Khalkha Mongols|Khalkha]], [[Hamnigan]], [[Kharchin Mongols|Kharchin]], [[Khoid]],  [[Khorchin Mongols|Khorchin]], [[Khotogoid|Hotogoid]], [[Khotons|Khoton]], [[Huuchid]], [[Myangad]], [[Olots]], [[Sartuul]],
[[Torgut]], [[Tümed]], [[Üzemchin Mongols|Üzemchin]], [[Zakhchin]].

=== China ===
{{Main|Mongols in China}}
The 2010 census of the People's Republic of China counted more than 7 million people of various Mongolic groups. It should be noted that the 1992 census of China counted only 3.6 million ethnic Mongols.{{cn|date=August 2016}} The 2010 census counted roughly 5.8 million ethnic Mongols, 621,500 Dongxiangs, 289,565 Mongours, 132,000 Daurs, 20,074 Baoans, and 14,370 Yugurs.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}} Most of them live in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, followed by [[Liaoning]]. Small numbers can also be found in provinces near those two.

There were 669,972 Mongols in Liaoning in 2011, making up 11.52% of Mongols in China.<ref>"Tianya" network: [http://bbs.tianya.cn/post-259-10066-1.shtml General situation of Mongols in Liaoning] (in Chinese)</ref> The closest Mongol area to the sea is the Dabao Mongol Ethnic Township (大堡蒙古族镇) in [[Fengcheng, Liaoning|Fengcheng]], Liaoning. With 8,460 Mongols (37.4% of the township population)<ref>"Baidu" network: [http://baike.baidu.com/view/7126933.htm Dabao Mongol Ethnic Township] (in Chinese)</ref> it is located 40&nbsp;km from the North Korean border and 65&nbsp;km from [[Korea Bay]] of the Yellow Sea. Another contender for closest Mongol area to the sea would be Erdaowanzi Mongol Ethnic Township (二道湾子蒙古族乡) in [[Jianchang County|Jianchang]], Liaoning. With 5,011 Mongols (20.7% of the township population)<ref>"Baidu" network: [http://baike.baidu.com/view/548716.htm Erdaowanzi Mongol Ethnic Township] (in Chinese)</ref> it is located around 65&nbsp;km from the [[Bohai Sea]].

Other peoples speaking Mongolic languages are the [[Daur people|Daur]], [[Sogwo Arig]], [[Monguor people]], [[Dongxiangs]], [[Bonans]], [[Sichuan Mongols]] and eastern part of the [[Yugur people]]. Those do not officially count as part of the Mongol ethnicity, but are recognized as ethnic groups of their own. The Mongols lost their contact with the Mongours, Bonan, Dongxiangs, Yunnan Mongols since the fall of the Yuan dynasty. Mongolian scientists and journalists met with the Dongxiangs and Yunnan Mongols in the 2000s.{{cn|date=August 2016}}

Southern Mongolia:
Southern Mongols,  [[Barga Mongols|Barga]], [[Buryats|Buryat]],  [[Dörbet Oirat]], [[Khalkha Mongols|Khalkha]],  [[Dzungar people]],  [[Ejin Banner|Eznee Torgut]].

[[Xinjiang]] province:
[[Altai Uriankhai]], [[Chahars|Chahar]], [[Khoshut]], [[Olots]], [[Torghut]], [[Zakhchin]].

[[Qinghai]] province: [[Upper Mongols]]: [[Choros]], [[Khalkha Mongols]], [[Khoshut]], [[Torghut]].

=== Russia ===
{{Main|Buryats|Kalmyk people|Demographics of Russia|Demographics of Siberia}}

Two Mongolic ethnic groups are present in Russia; the 2010 census found 461,410 [[Buryats]] and 183,400 Kalmyks.<ref>{{cite web
| title = Kalmyks
| url = http://www.minorityrights.org/?lid=2497
| publisher = World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples
| year = 2005
| accessdate = 2008-05-18
}}</ref>

=== Elsewhere ===
Smaller numbers of Mongolic peoples exist in Western Europe and North America. Some of the more notable communities exist in [[Mongolians in South Korea|South Korea]], the [[Mongolian American|United States]], the [[Mongolians in the Czech Republic|Czech Republic]] and the [[Mongolians in the United Kingdom|United Kingdom]].

== Gallery ==
<gallery class="center" widths="137px" heights="150px">
File:MurongPainting.jpg|4th century Mongolic [[Murong|Xianbei]] archer
File:Tomb of Emperor Xuanwu of Northern Wei 5.jpg|Guard at tomb of Xianbei [[Emperor Xuanwu of Northern Wei|Emperor Xuanwu]] (483-515).
File:The Fugong Temple Wooden Pagoda.jpg|Khitan [[Pagoda of Fogong Temple]], 1056
File:Fresco Songjingtu, Liao Dynasty Tomb at Baoshan.jpg|Khitan tomb painting (Liao Dynasty) at Ar Horqin Banner, Inner Mongolia.
File:Guard, Fresco, Liao Dynasty, Chifeng Museum.jpg|Mongolic Khitan guard in Liao Dynasty (907-1125) fresco
File:KhitanMural.jpg|Mongolic Khitan men, women and children from the Liao Dynasty.
File:YuanEmpressAlbumJiyatu.jpg|Mongol Empress Zayaat (Jiyatu), wife of [[Kulug Khan]] (1281–1311)
File:TuluiWithQueenSorgaqtani.jpg|Genghis' son [[Tolui]] with [[Sorgagtani|Queen Sorgaqtani]]
File:Hulagu Khan.jpg|[[Hulegu]] Khan, ruler of the [[Ilkhanate]]
File:IlkhanidHorseArcher.jpg|13th century Ilkhanid Mongol archer
File:Mongol soldiers by Rashid al-Din 1305.JPG|Mongol soldiers by Rashid al-Din in 1305
File:Annushka by I.Argunov (1767, Kuskovo).jpg|Kalmyk Mongol girl Annushka (painted in 1767)
File:Navaanneren.jpg|A 20th-century Mongol Khan, [[Navaanneren]]
File:4DalaiLama.jpg|The 4th Dalai Lama [[Yonten Gyatso]]
File:Asashoryu Jan08 crop.JPG|[[Asashōryū Akinori|Dolgorsürengiin Dagvadorj]] became the first Mongol to reach sumo's highest rank.
File:Naadam women archery.jpg|Mongol women archers during [[Naadam]] festival
File:Mongolian Musician.jpg|A Mongol musician
File:Mongols Wrangler.jpg|A Mongol Wrangler
File:Еравнинский шаман Сандан.JPG|Buryat Mongol shaman
File:Чаепитие калмыков.jpg|Kalmyks, 19th century
File:MongolianDance.JPG|Mongol girl performing [[Bayid|Bayad]] dance
File:Забайкальские буряты.jpg|Buryat Mongols (painted in 1840)
File:Empress Gobele Wan-Rong (09).JPG|[[Daur people|Daur]] Mongol [[Empress Wanrong]] (1906-1946), also had [[Borjigin]] blood on maternal side.
File:Бурятский мальчик.JPG|Buryat Mongol boy during shamanic rite
File:Concubine Wenxiu.jpg|Concubine Wenxiu was Puyi's consort
</gallery>

== See also ==
{{col-begin}}{{col-break}}
* [[Altan Telgey]]
* [[Horse culture in Mongolia]]
* [[Mongolian name]]
* [[Qaraunas]]
{{col-break|gap=4em}}
* [[List of medieval Mongol tribes and clans]]
* [[List of modern Mongolian clans]]
* [[List of Mongolians]]
* [[List of Mongol states]]
{{col-end}}

== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}

== External links ==
* "[http://www.biomedcentral.com/content/pdf/1741-7007-8-15.pdf Evidence that a West-East admixed population lived in the Tarim Basin as early as the early Bronze Age]" Li et al. ''BMC Biology'' 2010, 8:15.
* [http://www.chriskaplonski.com/images/ethnicmap_med.jpg Ethnic map of Mongolia]
* [http://www.360doc.com/content/12/0813/22/276037_230028707.shtml Map share of ethnic by county of China]

{{Mongol ethnic groups|state=expanded}}
{{Yuan dynasty topics}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Mongolia| ]]
[[Category:Mongol peoples| ]]
[[Category:History of Mongolia| ]]