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{{About|the region with various definitions of its extent|region that falls entirely within China|Northeast China|the region ceded to Russia during the Qing dynasty|Outer Manchuria|other uses|Manchuria (disambiguation)}}

{{Chinese
|pic = Manchuria.png|
|s = 满洲
|t = 滿洲
|p = Mǎnzhōu
|j = mun<sup>5</sup> zau<sup>1</sup>
|wuu = moe<sup>上</sup>tseu<sup>平</sup>
|rus = Маньчжурия
|rusr = Manïčžuriya
|ja = 満州
|mon = 
|mnc = ᠮᠠᠨᠵᡠ
|mnc_rom = Manju
|order = st
}}

[[File:Northeast China.svg|250px|thumb|right|Inner Manchuria: [[Northeast China]] = Red, Eastern [[Inner Mongolia]] = Pink]]
[[File:John-Tallis-1851-Tibet-Mongolia-and-Manchuria-NE.jpg|thumb|250px|One of the earliest European maps using the term "Manchuria" (''Mandchouria'') ([[John Tallis]], 1851). Previously, the term "Chinese [[Tartary]]" had been commonly applied in the West to Manchuria and Mongolia<ref>E.g. [https://books.google.com/books?id=dJo8AAAAIAAJ Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, Volumes 11-12], 1867, p. 162</ref>]]

'''Manchuria''' ({{manchu|m={{ManchuSibeUnicode|ᠮᠠᠨᠵᡠ}}; [[Transliterations of Manchu|romanised]]: ''manju''}}; {{zh|t=滿洲|s=满洲|p=Mǎnzhōu}}) is a modern name, first created by the [[Japanese people|Japanese]],<ref name=japanese1>[https://books.google.com/books?id=LbmP_1KIQ_8C&pg=PA159#v=onepage&q&f=false]{{harvnb |Pozzi|2006|p=159}}.</ref><ref name=japanese2>[https://books.google.com/books?id=LbmP_1KIQ_8C&pg=PA167#v=onepage&q&f=false]{{harvnb |Pozzi|2006|p=167}}.</ref> given to a large geographic region in [[Northeast Asia]]. Depending on the context, Manchuria can either refer to a region that falls entirely within the [[People's Republic of China]],<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/361449/Manchuria "Manchuria". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 17 Jun. 2012]</ref><ref>http://oxforddictionaries.com/view/entry/m_en_gb0496460#m_en_gb0496460</ref><ref>http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/manchuria</ref> or a larger region divided between China and [[Russia]]. The region that falls entirely within modern China is now usually referred to as '''''[[Northeast China]]''''' ({{zh|t=東北|s=东北|p=Dōngběi}}) in China, although "Manchuria" is widely used outside of China to denote the geographical and historical region. This region is the traditional homeland of the [[Xianbei]], [[Khitan people|Khitan]], and [[Jurchen people|Jurchen]] (later called [[Manchu people|Manchu]]) peoples, who built several states historically, although no term for "Manchuria" exists in the [[Manchu language]],<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=yCqMneCHMJ4C&pg=PA8#v=onepage&q&f=false]{{harvnb |Giles|1912|p=8}}.</ref> which originally referred to the area as the "Three Eastern Provinces".<ref name=giles>[https://books.google.com/books?id=RpIvpEjlEJQC&pg=PA7#v=onepage&q&f=false Clausen 1995], p. 7.</ref>

==Definition==
The definition of '''Manchuria''' can be any one of several regions of various size. These are, from smallest to largest:

#[[Northeast China]] (Dōngběi): consisting of [[Heilongjiang]], [[Jilin]] and [[Liaoning]] provinces. This is the area referred to as "Manchuria" in the [[World Geographical Scheme for Recording Plant Distributions]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Brummitt |first=R.K. |year=2001 |title=World Geographical Scheme for Recording Plant Distributions: Edition 2 |publisher=International Working Group on Taxonomic Databases For Plant Sciences (TDWG) |url = http://www.nhm.ac.uk/hosted_sites/tdwg/TDWG_geo2.pdf |accessdate = 2006-11-27 |ref=harv |p=12}}</ref>
#'''Inner Manchuria''': the above, plus parts of modern [[Inner Mongolia]] ([[Hulunbuir]], [[Hinggan League|Hinggan]], [[Tongliao]], and [[Chifeng]] divisions);
#The above, plus [[Outer Manchuria]] (Outer Northeast China or Russian Manchuria): the area from the [[Amur River|Amur]] and [[Ussuri]] rivers to the [[Stanovoy Mountains]] and the [[Sea of Japan]]. In Russian administrative terms, [[Ussuri krai]], southern [[Harbin Russians|Harbin oblast']], [[Primorskiy kray]]. 
[[File:Карта Манжурии.png|thumb|left|Russian interpretation Map of Manchuria (yellow)]]

These were part of the [[Qing dynasty]] China according to the [[Treaty of Nerchinsk]] (1689) that defined the border in the region between China and Russia, but were ceded to Russia by the [[unequal treaties]] of the [[Treaty of Aigun]] (1858) and the [[Treaty of Peking]] (1860).
#The above, plus [[Sakhalin Island]], which is generally included on Qing dynasty maps as part of Outer Manchuria even though it is not explicitly mentioned in the Treaty of Nerchinsk. The island was also included in Manchuria on maps made by the Japanese Shogunate and Russian Empire. Despite of lines on maps and empires's political claims, the island was inhabited by [[Ainu people]] until the Soviet Union enforced an evacuation policy after 1945.

==Etymology and names==
<blockquote>Three centuries and a half must now pass away before entering upon the next act of the Manchu drama. The Nü-chêns had been scotched, but not killed, by their Mongol conquerors, who, one hundred and thirty-four years later (1368), were themselves driven out of China, a pure native dynasty being re-established under the style of Ming, "Bright." During the ensuing two hundred years the Nü-chêns were scarcely heard of, the House of Ming being busily occupied in other directions. Their warlike spirit, however, found scope and nourishment in the expeditions organised against Japan and [[Tan-lo]], or [[Quelpart]], as named by the Dutch, a large island to the south of the [[Korean peninsula]]; while on the other hand the various tribes scattered over a portion of the territory known to Europeans as Manchuria, availed themselves of long immunity from attack by the Chinese to advance in civilization and prosperity. It may be noted here that "Manchuria" is unknown to the Chinese or to the Manchus themselves as a geographical expression. The present extensive home of the Manchus is usually spoken of as the Three Eastern Provinces, namely, (1) Shêngking, or Liao-tung, or Kuan-tung, (2) Kirin, and (3) Heilungchiang or Tsitsihar. &mdash; [[Herbert A. Giles]], ''China and the Manchus'', 1912<ref name=giles/></blockquote>

"Manchuria" is a translation of the Manchurian word ''Manju''({{manchu|m={{ManchuSibeUnicode|ᠮᠠᠨᠵᡠ}};  The name ''Manju'' (Manzhou) was invented and given to the [[Jurchen people]] by [[Hong Taiji]] in 1635 as a new name for their ethnic group; however, the name "Manchuria" was never used by the [[Manchus]] or the Qing dynasty itself to refer to their homeland. According to the Japanese scholar Junko Miyawaki-Okada, the Japanese geographer Takahashi Kageyasu was the first to use the term "満州" (Manshū) as a place name in 1809 in the ''Nippon Henkai Ryakuzu'', and it was from that work that Westerners adopted the name.<ref name=japanese1/><ref name=japanese2/> According to Mark C. Elliott, Katsuragawa Hoshū's 1794 work, the  "Hokusa bunryaku", was where "満州" (Manshū) first appeared as a place name was in two maps included in the work, "Ashia zenzu" and "Chikyū hankyū sōzu" which were also created by Katsuragawa.<ref>[http://www.jstor.org/stable/2658945?seq=24 Elliot 2000], p. 626.</ref> "満州" (Manshū) then began to appear as a place names in more maps created by Japanese like Kondi Jūzō, Takahashi Kageyasu, Baba Sadayoshi and Yamada Ren, and these maps were brought to Europe by the Dutch Philipp von Siebold.<ref>[http://www.jstor.org/stable/2658945?seq=26 Elliot 2000], p. 628.</ref> According to Nakami Tatsuo, Philip Franz von Siebold was the one who brought the usage of the term Manchuria to Europeans after borrowing it from the Japanese, who were the first to use it in a geographic manner in the eighteenth century although neither the Manchu nor Chinese languages had a term in their own language equivalent to "Manchuria" as a geographic place name.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=xlg0lM8f9Y4C&pg=PA514#v=onepage&q&f=false ed. Wolff & Steinberg 2007], p. 514.</ref> The Manchu and Chinese languages had no such word as "Manchuria" and the word has imperialist connotations.<ref name="Forêt2000">{{cite book|author=Philippe Forêt|title=Mapping Chengde: The Qing Landscape Enterprise|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tAfF7d-7ysEC&pg=PR16&dq=qinzong+gioro&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CGEQ6AEwCWoVChMIzY2h8u3-yAIVR2weCh3y_g_u#v=onepage&q=qinzong%20gioro&f=false|date=January 2000|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|isbn=978-0-8248-2293-4|pages=16–}}</ref> According to Bill Sewell, it was Europeans who first started using the name Manchuria to refer to the location and it is "not a genuine geographic term".<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=El9Lj_EKzBAC&pg=PA114&dq=Although+prewar+Japanese+came+to+perceive+%22Manchuria%22+as+a+separate+or+discrete+entity,+the+term+is+of+abstract+utility+only+and+is+not+a+genuine+geographic+term.+Of+European+origin,+it+designated+only+the+homeland+of+the+Manchus,+but+imperialist+competition+resulted+in+its+reification.+Chinese+refer+to+the+region+historically+as+the+%22three+eastern+provinces&hl=en&sa=X&ei=B02CU7fyI7TIsASKg4GoAg&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Although%20prewar%20Japanese%20came%20to%20perceive%20%22Manchuria%22%20as%20a%20separate%20or%20discrete%20entity%2C%20the%20term%20is%20of%20abstract%20utility%20only%20and%20is%20not%20a%20genuine%20geographic%20term.%20Of%20European%20origin%2C%20it%20designated%20only%20the%20homeland%20of%20the%20Manchus%2C%20but%20imperialist%20competition%20resulted%20in%20its%20reification.%20Chinese%20refer%20to%20the%20region%20historically%20as%20the%20%22three%20eastern%20provinces&f=false ed. Edgington 2003], p. 114.</ref> The historian [[Gavan McCormack]] agreed with Robert H.&nbsp;G. Lee's statement that "The term Manchuria or Man-chou is a modern creation used mainly by westerners and Japanese", with McCormack writing that the term Manchuria is imperialistic in nature and has no "precise meaning" since the Japanese deliberately promoted the use of "Manchuria" as a geographic name to promote its separation from China at the time they were setting up their puppet state of Manchukuo.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=GoSrAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA4#v=onepage&q&f=false McCormack 1977], p. 4.</ref> The Japanese had their own motive for deliberately spreading the usage of the term Manchuria.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=AC6tAAAAMAAJ&q=%22the+Japanese+popularize+this+term+for+a+%22&dq=%22the+Japanese+popularize+this+term+for+a+%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=aX6WU-e4MIewyASyjoH4CA&ved=0CCcQ6AEwAA Pʻan 1938], p. 8.</ref> The historian Norman Smith wrote that "The term 'Manchuria' is controversial".<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=2pjbx91hb_gC&pg=PA219#v=onepage&q&f=false Smith 2012], p. 219.</ref> Professor Mariko Asano Tamanoi said that she "should use the term in quotation marks" when referring to Manchuria.<ref>[http://www.jstor.org/stable/2658656?seq=2 Tamanoi 2000], p. 249.</ref> In his 2012 dissertation on the Jurchen people to obtain a Doctor of Philosophy degree in History from the University of Washington, Professor Chad D. Garcia noted that usage of the term "Manchuria" is out of favor in "current scholarly practice" and that he had ceased using the term, instead using "the northeast" or referring to specific geographical features.<ref>[https://dlib.lib.washington.edu/researchworks/bitstream/handle/1773/20679/Garcia_washington_0250E_10365.pdf?sequence=1 Garcia 2012], p. 15.</ref>

In the 18th-century Europe, the region later known as "Manchuria" was most commonly referred to as "[Chinese] [[Tartary]]". However, the term Manchuria (''Mantchourie'', in French) started appearing by the end of the century; French missionaries used it as early as 1800.<ref>"Mantchourie" appearing among the name of [[Jesuit missions in China|Jesuit missionary districts]] in China, with 10,000 Christians, in: {{citation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Me0GAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA161|page=161|title=	Annales de l'Oeuvre de la Sainte Enfance|volume=18|year=1800}}</ref> The French-based geographers [[Conrad Malte-Brun]] and [[Edme Mentelle]] promoted the use of the term Manchuria (''Mantchourie'', in French), along with "Mongolia", "Kalmykia", etc., as more precise terms than [[Tartary]], in their world geography work published in 1804.<ref>«Les provinces tributaires du nord ou la Mantchourie, la Mongolie, la Kalmouquie, le Sifan, la Petit Bucharie, et autres pays vulgairement compris sous la fausse dénomination de TARTARIE», in: {{citation
|first=Edme |last=Mentelle|first2= Malte|last2=Brun|publisher=H. Tardieu |year=1804
|title=Géographie mathématique, physique & politique de toutes les parties du monde|volume =12
|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=CghUAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA144|page=144}}</ref>

In current Chinese [[parlance]], an inhabitant of "the Northeast", or Northeast China, is a "Northeasterner" ({{zh|s=东北人|p=Dōngběi rén|labels=no}}). "The Northeast" is a term that expresses the entire region, encompassing its history, culture, traditions, dialects, cuisines and so forth, as well as the "Three East Provinces" or "Three Northeast Provinces". In China, the term Manchuria ({{zh|s=满洲|t=滿洲|p=Mǎnzhōu|first=t}}) is rarely used today, and the term is often negatively associated with the Japanese imperial legacy in the puppet state of [[Manchukuo]] ({{zh|s=满洲国|t=滿洲國|p=Mǎnzhōuguó|first=t}}).<ref>{{Cite book|title=Memory Maps: The State and Manchuria in Postwar Japan|last=Tamanoi|first=Mariko|publisher=[[University of Hawaii Press]]|year=2009|page=10}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=A Lost Mathematician, Takeo Nakasawa: The Forgotten Father of Matroid Theory|last=Nishimura|first=Hirokazu|last2=Kuroda|first2=Susumu|publisher=Springer|year=2009|page=15}}</ref>

Manchuria has also been referred to as '''Guandong''' ({{zh|s=关东|t=關東|p=Guāndōng|first=t}}), which literally means "east of the pass", and similarly '''Guanwai''' (關外; 关外; ''Guānwài''; "outside of the pass"), a reference to [[Shanhai Pass]] in [[Qinhuangdao]] in today's [[Hebei]] province, at the eastern end of the [[Great Wall of China]]. This usage is seen in the expression ''[[Chuǎng Guāndōng]]'' (literally "Rushing into Guandong") referring to the mass migration of [[Han Chinese]] to Manchuria in the 19th and 20th centuries. The name [[Guandong (disambiguation)|Guandong]] later came to be used more narrowly for the area of the [[Kwantung Leased Territory]] on the [[Liaodong Peninsula]]. It is not to be confused with the southern province of [[Guangdong]].

During the Qing dynasty, the region was known as the "three eastern provinces" ({{zh|s=东三省|t=東三省|p=Dōngsānshěng|first=t}}) (dergi ilan golo) since 1683 when Jilin and Heilongjiang were separated even though it was not until 1907 that they were turned into actual provinces.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=RpIvpEjlEJQC&pg=PA7#v=onepage&q&f=false Clausen 1995], p. 7.</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3utRAQAAIAAJ&q=chahars+hunghutze&dq=chahars+hunghutze&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjRn5WpvonKAhUC4yYKHbbPC9AQ6AEIMTAE|title=Oriental Affairs: A Monthly Review|year=1935|page=189}}</ref> The administrators of the three areas were the General of Heilongjiang (Sahaliyan Ula i Jiyanggiyūn), General of Jilin (Girin i Jiyanggiyūn), and General of Shengjing (Mukden i Jiyanggiyūn). The area of Manchuria was then converted into three [[Provinces of the People's Republic of China|provinces]] by the late [[Qing dynasty|Qing]] government in 1907. Since then, the phrase "Three Northeast Provinces" was officially used by the Qing government in [[China]] to refer to this region, and the post of [[Viceroy of the Three Northeast Provinces]] (dergi ilan goloi uheri kadalara amban) was established to take charge of these provinces. After the [[Xinhai Revolution|1911 revolution]], which resulted in the collapse of the Manchu-established Qing dynasty, the name of the region where the Manchus originated was known as "the Northeast" in official documents in the newly founded [[Republic of China (1912–49)|Republic of China]], in addition to the "Three Northeast Provinces".

During the [[Ming dynasty]] the area where the Jurchens lived was referred to as [[Nurgan]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Wn4iv_RJv8oC&pg=PA55#v=onepage&q&f=false Crossley 1999], p. 55.</ref> Nurgan was the area of modern [[Jilin]] province in Manchuria.

==Geography and climate==
Manchuria consists mainly of the northern side of the funnel-shaped [[North China Craton]], a large area of tilled and overlaid [[Precambrian]] rocks spanning 100 million hectares. The North China Craton was an independent continent before the [[Triassic]] period and is known to have been the northernmost piece of land in the world during the [[Carboniferous]]. The [[Khingan Mountains]] in the west are a Jurassic<ref>Bogatikov, Oleg Alekseevich (2000); ''Magmatism and Geodynamics: Terrestrial Magmatism throughout the Earth's History''; pp. 150–151. ISBN 90-5699-168-X</ref> mountain range formed by the collision of the North China Craton with the [[Siberia (continent)|Siberian Craton]], which marked the final stage of the formation of the [[supercontinent]] [[Pangaea]].

No part of Manchuria was [[glaciation|glaciated]] during the [[Quaternary]], but the surface geology of most of the lower-lying and more fertile parts of Manchuria consists of very deep layers of [[loess]], which have been formed by wind-borne movement of [[dust]] and [[till]] particles formed in glaciated parts of the [[Himalaya]]s, [[Kunlun Shan]] and [[Tien Shan]], as well as the [[Gobi]] and [[Taklamakan]] Deserts.<ref>Kropotkin, Prince P.; "Geology and Geo-Botany of Asia"; in '''Popular Science''', May 1904; pp. 68-69</ref> Soils are mostly fertile [[Mollisols]] and Fluvents except in the more mountainous parts where they are poorly developed [[Orthent]]s, as well as in the extreme north where [[permafrost]] occurs and [[Gelisols|Orthels]] dominate.<ref>Juo, A. S. R. and Franzlübbers, Kathrin Tropical Soils: Properties and Management for Sustainable Agriculture; pp. 118-119; ISBN 0-19-511598-8</ref>

The climate of Manchuria has extreme seasonal contrasts, ranging from humid, almost tropical heat in the summer to windy, dry, Arctic cold in the winter. This pattern occurs because the position of Manchuria on the boundary between the great [[Eurasia]]n continental landmass and the huge [[Pacific Ocean]] causes complete [[monsoon]]al wind reversal.

In the summer, when the land heats faster than the ocean, low pressure forms over Asia and warm, moist south to southeasterly [[wind]]s bring heavy, thundery rain, yielding annual rainfall ranging from 400&nbsp;mm (16 in.), or less in the west, to over 1150&nbsp;mm (45 in.) in the [[Changbai Mountains]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.amlinkint.com/English/travel-to-china/images/about-china-annual-precipit.jpg |title=Average Annual Precipitation in China |date= |accessdate=2010-05-18}}</ref> Temperatures in the summer are very warm to hot, with July average maxima ranging from 31&nbsp;°C (88&nbsp;°F) in the south to 24&nbsp;°C (75&nbsp;°F) in the extreme north.<ref>Kaisha, Tesudo Kabushiki and Manshi, Minami; '''Manchuria: Land of Opportunities'''; pp. 1-2. ISBN 1-110-97760-3</ref> Except in the far north near the [[Amur River]], high humidity causes major discomfort at this time of year.

In the winter, however, the vast [[Siberia]]n [[Siberian High|High]] causes very cold, north to northwesterly winds that bring temperatures as low as −5&nbsp;°C (23&nbsp;°F) in the extreme south and −30&nbsp;°C (−22&nbsp;°F) in the north<ref>Kaisha and Manshi; '''Manchuria'''; pp. 1-2</ref> where the zone of [[discontinuous permafrost]] reaches northern [[Heilongjiang]]. However, because the winds from [[Siberia]] are exceedingly dry, [[snow]] falls only on a few days every winter, and it is never heavy. This explains why corresponding latitudes of [[North America]] were fully glaciated during glacial periods of the Quaternary while Manchuria, though even colder, always remained too dry to form [[glacier]]s<ref>[http://www.eas.slu.edu/People/KChauff/earth_history/4EH-posted.pdf Earth History 2001] (page 15)</ref>&nbsp;– a state of affairs enhanced by stronger westerly winds from the surface of the [[ice sheet]] in [[Europe]].
{{History of Manchuria}}

==History==
{{main article|History of Manchuria}}

===Early history===
[[File:Ussuriysk-Stone-Tortoise-S-3542.jpg|thumb|A 12th-century [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Jurchen]] stone tortoise in today's [[Ussuriysk]]]]
[[File:A Tartar Huntsmen on His Horse.jpg|thumb|A Jurchen man hunting from his horse, from a 15th-century ink and color painting on silk]]
Manchuria was the homeland of several ethnic groups, including the [[Manchu people|Manchu]], [[Ulchs]] and [[Hezhen]]. Various ethnic groups and their respective kingdoms, including the [[Sushen]], [[Donghu people|Donghu]], [[Xianbei]], [[Wuhuan]], [[Mohe people|Mohe]], [[Khitan people|Khitan]] and [[Jurchens]] have risen to power in Manchuria. At various times, [[Han dynasty]], [[Cao Wei]] dynasty, [[Western Jin dynasty]], [[Tang dynasty]] and some other minor kingdoms of China established control in parts of Manchuria and in some cases tributary relations with peoples in the area.<ref>The Cambridge History of China, Vol. 03: "Sui and T'ang China, 589–906, Part 1," at 32, 33.</ref> Various kingdoms of Korea such as [[Gojoseon]], [[Buyeo kingdom|Buyeo]], [[Goguryeo]] and [[Balhae]] were also established in parts of this area. Finnish linguist [[Juha Janhunen]] believes that it was likely that a "[[Tungusic languages|Tungusic-speaking]] elite" ruled Goguryeo and Balhae, describing them as "protohistorical Manchurian states" with part of their population [[Tungusic peoples|Tungusic]], and that the area of southern Manchuria was the origin of Tungusic peoples and was inhabited continuously by them since ancient times. Janhunen rejected opposing theories of Goguryeo and Balhae's ethnic composition.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=LbmP_1KIQ_8C&pg=PA109#v=onepage&q&f=false Pozzi & Janhunen & Weiers 2006], p. 109</ref> With the Song dynasty to the south, the [[Khitan people]] of [[Inner Mongolia]] created the [[Liao dynasty]] in the region, which went on to control adjacent parts of [[North China|Northern China]] as well. The Liao dynasty was the first state to control all of Manchuria.<ref>[https://books.google.mn/books?id=eTFMPO5NdKgC&pg=PA227&lpg=PA227&dq=Ruins+of+Identity:+Ethnogenesis+in+the+Japanese+Islands+control+all+of+manchuria&source=bl&ots=SyoHDbdv9i&sig=SK2vY6jSgM-GMEEaaYew3imVkSs&hl=mn&sa=X&ei=gE3TVKrjHMnmoATuvoHIBQ&ved=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false Ruins of Identity: Ethnogenesis in the Japanese Islands By Mark Hudson]</ref><ref>Ledyard, 1983, 323</ref>

In the early 12th century the Tungusic Jurchen people, who were Liao's tributaries, overthrew the Liao and formed the [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)]], which went on to control parts of Northern China and Mongolia [[Jurchen campaigns against the Song dynasty|after a series of successful military campaigns]]. During the [[Yuan dynasty]] (1271–1368),<ref>Patricia Ann Berger – Empire of emptiness: [[Buddhist]] art and political authority in Qing China, p.25</ref> Manchuria was [[Manchuria under Yuan rule|administered]] under the [[Liaoyang province]]. In 1375, [[Naghachu]], a Mongol official of the Mongolia-based [[Northern Yuan dynasty]] in Liaoyang province invaded Liaodong, but later [[Ming military campaign against Naghachu|surrendered to the Ming dynasty]] in 1387. In order to protect the northern border areas, the Ming decided to "pacify" the Jurchens in order to deal with its problems with Yuan remnants along its northern border. The Ming [[Manchuria under Ming rule|solidified control over Manchuria]] under the [[Yongle Emperor]] (1402–1424), establishing the [[Nurgan Regional Military Commission]]. Starting in the 1580s, a [[Jianzhou Jurchens|Jianzhou Jurchen]] chieftain, [[Nurhaci]] (1558–1626), started to unify Jurchen tribes of the region. Over the next several decades, the Jurchen [[Manchuria under Qing rule|took control of most of Manchuria]]. In 1616, Nurhaci founded the Later Jin dynasty, later became known as the [[Qing dynasty]].

Chinese cultural and religious influence such as Chinese New Year, the "Chinese god", motifs such as the dragon, spirals, and scrolls, agriculture, husbandry, methods of heating, and material goods such as iron cooking pots, silk, and cotton spread among the Amur natives including the [[Udege people|Udeghes]], [[Ulchi]]s, and [[Nani people|Nanais]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=nzhq85nPrdsC&pg=PA214#v=onepage&q&f=false Forsyth 1994], p. 214.</ref>

In 1644, after the [[Ming dynasty]]'s capital of Beijing was sacked by the peasant rebels, the Jurchens (now called Manchus) allied with Ming general [[Wu Sangui]] and seized control of Beijing, overthrowing the short-lived [[Shun dynasty]] and establishing [[Qing dynasty]] rule (1644–1912) over all of China. The [[Willow Palisade]] was a system of ditches and embankments built by the Qing dynasty during the later 17th century to restrict the movement of Han civilians into Jilin and Heilongjiang.<ref>Elliott, Mark C. "The Limits of Tartary: Manchuria in Imperial and National Geographies." ''Journal of Asian Studies'' 59, no. 3 (2000): 603-46.</ref> Only [[Colours, standards and guidons|bannermen]], including Chinese bannermen, were allowed to settle in [[Jilin]] and [[Heilongjiang]].

After conquering the Ming, the Qing identified their state as "China" (中國, Zhongguo; "Middle Kingdom"), and referred to it as "Dulimbai Gurun" in Manchu.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=NESwGW_5uLoC&pg=PA117&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&hl=en&sa=X&ei=iT7tUsrhM4bhyQH_04HYBg&ved=0CFgQ6AEwCQ#v=onepage&q=Dulimbai%20gurun&f=false Hauer 2007], p. 117.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=TmhtAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA80&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&hl=en&sa=X&ei=-0PtUoKZEKWgyAH8oIHgBQ&ved=0CF0Q6AEwCTge#v=onepage&q=Dulimbai%20gurun&f=false Dvořák 1895], p. 80.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=zqVug_wN4hEC&pg=PA102&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&hl=en&sa=X&ei=m0PtUtv-OIOTyQHX8YCwAQ&ved=0CDAQ6AEwATgU#v=onepage&q=Dulimbai%20gurun&f=false Wu 1995], p. 102.</ref>  The Qing equated the lands of the Qing state (including Manchuria and present-day Xinjiang, Mongolia, Tibet and other areas) as "China" in both the Chinese and [[Manchu language|Manchu]] languages, defining China as a multi-ethnic state, rejecting the idea that China only meant Han areas, proclaiming that both Han and non-Han peoples were part of "China", and using "China" to refer to the Qing in official documents, international treaties, and foreign affairs. The term "Chinese language" (Dulimbai gurun i bithe) referred to Chinese, Manchu, and Mongol languages, and the term "Chinese people" (中國人 Zhongguo ren; Manchu: Dulimbai gurun i niyalma) referred to all Han, Manchus, and Mongol subjects of the Qing. The lands in Manchuria were explicitly stated by the Qing to belong to "China" (Zhongguo, Dulimbai gurun) in Qing edicts and in the Treaty of Nerchinsk.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20140325231543/https://webspace.utexas.edu/hl4958/perspectives/Zhao%20-%20reinventing%20china.pdf Zhao 2006], pp. 4, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14.</ref>

However Qing rule saw a massively increasing amount of Han Chinese both illegally and legally streaming into Manchuria and settling down to cultivate land as Manchu landlords desired Han Chinese peasants to rent on their land and grow grain, most Han Chinese migrants were not evicted as they went over the Great Wall and Willow Palisade, during the eighteenth century Han Chinese farmed 500,000 hectares of privately owned land in Manchuria and 203,583 hectares of lands which were part of coutrier stations, noble estates, and Banner lands, in garrisons and towns in Manchuria Han Chinese made up 80% of the population.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=HQ5KbXYhEB8C&pg=PA141&lpg=PA141&dq=sedentary+farming+manchu&source=bl&ots=1Ji7L_j2V1&sig=uQGL-sSQn1a2b1y1e5qTYLMMjq8&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CEgQ6AEwBmoVChMItoTTucbPxgIVSVseCh3WWgJY#v=onepage&q=sedentary%20farming%20manchu&f=false Richards 2003], p. 141.</ref>

Han Chinese farmers were resettled from north China by the Qing to the area along the Liao River in order to restore the land to cultivation.<ref>[http://www.jstor.org/stable/3985584?seq=2 Reardon-Anderson 2000], p. 504.</ref> Wasteland was reclaimed by Han Chinese squatters in addition to other Han who rented land from Manchu landlords.<ref>[http://www.jstor.org/stable/3985584?seq=3 Reardon-Anderson 2000], p. 505.</ref> Despite officially prohibiting Han Chinese settlement on Manchu and Mongol lands, by the 18th century the Qing decided to settle Han refugees from northern China who were suffering from famine, floods, and drought into Manchuria and Inner Mongolia, so that Han Chinese farmed 500,000 hectares in Manchuria and tens of thousands of hectares in Inner Mongolia by the 1780s.<ref>[http://www.jstor.org/stable/3985584?seq=4 Reardon-Anderson 2000], p. 506.</ref> The [[Qianlong Emperor]] allowed Han Chinese peasants suffering from drought to move into Manchuria despite his having issued edicts in favor of banning them from 1740–1776.<ref>[http://www.phil-fak.uni-koeln.de/fileadmin/chinastudien/papers/No_1998-1.pdf Scharping 1998], p. 18.</ref> Chinese tenant farmers rented or even claimed title to land from the "imperial estates" and Manchu Bannerlands in the area.<ref>[http://www.jstor.org/stable/3985584?seq=5 Reardon-Anderson 2000], p. 507.</ref> Besides moving into the Liao area in southern Manchuria, the path linking [[Jinzhou]], [[Fengtian, Inner Mongolia|Fengtian]], [[Tieling]], [[Changchun]], [[Hulun Buir|Hulun]], and [[Ningguta]] was settled by Han Chinese during the Qianlong Emperor's reign, and Han Chinese were the majority in urban areas of Manchuria by 1800.<ref>[http://www.jstor.org/stable/3985584?seq=6 Reardon-Anderson 2000], p. 508.</ref> To increase the Imperial Treasury's revenue, the Qing sold formerly Manchu-only lands along the Sungari to Han Chinese at the beginning of the [[Daoguang Emperor]]'s reign, and Han Chinese filled up most of Manchuria's towns by the 1840s, according to Abbe Huc.<ref>[http://www.jstor.org/stable/3985584?seq=7 Reardon-Anderson 2000], p. 509.</ref>

[[File:Iveron church in Harbin1.jpg|thumb|Russian Orthodox Church building in [[Harbin]], c.&nbsp;1900]]
The [[Russian conquest of Siberia]] was accompanied by massacres due to indigenous resistance to colonization by the Russian Cossacks, who savagely crushed the natives. At the hands of people like [[Vasilii Poyarkov]] in 1645 and [[Yerofei Khabarov]] in 1650 some peoples like the Daur were slaughtered by the Russians to the extent that it is now considered to have been genocide.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Mg6RAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA6&dq=Cossack+genocide+indigenous+Dauri+Amur+Kamchatka&hl=en&sa=X&ei=k-hWU5v6CfPQsQTekYHQDA&ved=0CDMQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Cossack%20genocide%20indigenous%20Dauri%20Amur%20Kamchatka&f=false Bisher 2006,] [https://books.google.com/books?id=28iPAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA6&dq=Dzungar+genocide&hl=en&sa=X&ei=veZWU6bcOeqtsQTI2YCwAg&ved=0CEsQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=Dzungar%20genocide&f=false p. 6.]</ref> The Daurs initially deserted their villages since they heard about the cruelty of the Russians the first time Khabarov came.<ref>{{cite news |last= |first= |date= Dec 17, 2009 |title=The Amur's siren song |url= http://www.economist.com/node/15108641 |newspaper= The Economist | edition=From the print edition: Christmas Specials|location= |publisher= |accessdate=15 August 2014 }}</ref> The second time he came, the Daurs decided to do battle against the Russians instead but were slaughtered by Russian guns.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=nzhq85nPrdsC&pg=PA104#v=onepage&q&f=false Forsyth 1994], p. 104.</ref> The indigenous peoples of the Amur region were attacked by Russians who came to be known as "red-beards".<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Jce4rBWjG5wC&pg=PA64#v=onepage&q&f=false Stephan 1996], p. 64.</ref> The Russian Cossacks were named luocha (羅剎), after Demons found in Buddhist mythology, by the Amur natives because of their cruelty towards the Amur tribes people, who were subjects of the Qing.<ref>[http://history.emory.edu/home/assets/documents/endeavors/volume4/EmoryEndeavors4Complete.pdf Kang 2013], p. 1.</ref> The Russian proselytization of [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox Christianity]] to the indigenous peoples along the Amur River was viewed as a threat by the Qing.<ref>[http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.13173/centasiaj.56.2013.0169 Kim 2012/2013], p. 169.</ref>

In 1858, a weakening Qing Empire was forced to cede Manchuria north of the Amur to Russia under the [[Treaty of Aigun]]. In 1860, at the [[Convention of Peking|Treaty of Peking]], the Russians managed to obtain a further large slice of Manchuria, east of the [[Ussuri River]]. As a result, Manchuria was divided into a Russian half known as "[[Outer Manchuria]]", and a remaining Chinese half known as "Inner Manchuria". In modern literature, "Manchuria" usually refers to Inner (Chinese) Manchuria.{{citation needed|date=December 2012}} As a result of the Treaties of Aigun and Peking, China lost access to the [[Sea of Japan]].

===History after 1860===
[[File:1940 Manchurian visa.jpg|thumb|1940 Manchurian visa issued at Hamburg]]
[[File:Manchukuo map.png|thumb|Map of [[Manchukuo]] (1933–1945)]]
Inner Manchuria also came under strong Russian influence with the building of the [[Chinese Eastern Railway]] through [[Harbin, China|Harbin]] to [[Vladivostok]]. In the ''[[Chuang Guandong]]'' movement, many [[Han Chinese|Han]] farmers, mostly from the [[Shandong peninsula]] moved there. By 1921, Harbin, northern Manchuria's largest city, had a population of 300,000, including 100,000 [[Harbin Russians|Russians]].<ref>''"[https://books.google.com/books?id=bxFC5ynXN2YC&pg=PA68&dq&hl=en#v=onepage&q&f=false Memories of Dr. Wu Lien-teh, plague fighter]"''. Yu-lin Wu (1995). [[World Scientific]]. p.68. ISBN 981-02-2287-4</ref> [[Japan]] replaced Russian influence in the southern half of Inner Manchuria as a result of the [[Russo-Japanese War]] in 1904–1905. Most of the southern branch of the Chinese Eastern Railway was transferred from Russia to Japan, and became the [[South Manchurian Railway]]. Japanese influence extended into Outer Manchuria in the wake of the [[Russian Revolution of 1917]], but Outer Manchuria had reverted to [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] control by 1925. Manchuria was an important region due to its rich natural resources including coal, fertile soil, and various minerals. For [[Empire of Japan|pre–World War II Japan]], Manchuria was an essential source of raw materials. Without occupying Manchuria, the Japanese probably could not have carried out their plan for conquest over [[Southeast Asia]] or taken the risk to [[Attack on Pearl Harbor|attack Pearl Harbor]] and the [[British Empire]] in 1941.<ref>Edward Behr, ''The Last Emperor'', 1987, p. 202</ref>

It was reported that among Banner people, both Manchu and Chinese (Hanjun) in Aihun, Heilongjiang in the 1920s, would seldom marry with Han civilians, but they (Manchu and Chinese Bannermen) would mostly intermarry with each other.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=tgq1miGno-4C&pg=PA263&dq=Aihun+Heilongjiang+Hanjun&hl=en&sa=X&ei=IJygU4bYHKTy8AHt3oC4Cw&ved=0CCAQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Aihun%20Heilongjiang%20Hanjun&f=false Rhoads 2011], p. 263.</ref> Owen Lattimore reported that during his January 1930 visit to Manchuria, he studied a community in Jilin (Kirin), where both Manchu and Chinese bannermen were settled at a town called Wulakai, and eventually the Chinese Bannermen there could not be differentiated from Manchus since they were effectively Manchufied. The Han civilian population was in the process of absorbing and mixing with them when Lattimore wrote his article.<ref>[http://www.jstor.org/stable/535718?seq=1 Lattimore 1933], p. 272.</ref>

Around the time of [[World War I]], [[Zhang Zuolin]] established himself as a powerful [[warlord]] with influence over most of Manchuria. During his rule, the Manchurian economy grew tremendously, backed by immigration of Chinese from other parts of China. The Japanese assassinated him on June 2, 1928, in what is known as the [[Huanggutun Incident]].<ref>Edward Behr, ''ibid'', p. 168</ref> Following the [[Mukden Incident]] in 1931 and the subsequent [[Japanese invasion of Manchuria]], the Japanese declared Inner Manchuria an "independent state", and appointed the deposed Qing emperor [[Puyi]] as [[Puppet government|puppet emperor]] of [[Manchukuo]]. Under Japanese control Manchuria was one of the most brutally run regions in the world, with a systematic campaign of terror and intimidation against the local Russian and Chinese populations including arrests, organised riots and other forms of subjugation.<ref>Edward Behr, ''ibid'', p. 202</ref> Manchukuo was used as a base to invade the rest of China.

After the [[atomic bomb]]ing of [[Hiroshima]], [[Japan]] in 1945, the [[Soviet Union]] [[Manchurian Strategic Offensive Operation|invaded from Soviet Outer Manchuria]] as part of its [[declaration of war]] against Japan. Soon afterwards, the [[Communist Party of China]] and [[Chinese Nationalist Party]] (Kuomintang) started fighting for control over Manchuria. The communists won in the [[Liaoshen Campaign]] and took complete control over Manchuria. With the encouragement of the Soviet Union, Manchuria was then used as a [[staging area|staging ground]] during the Chinese Civil War for the [[Communist Party of China]], which emerged victorious in 1949. Ambiguities in the treaties that ceded Outer Manchuria to Russia led to dispute over the political status of several islands. This led to armed conflict in 1969, called the [[Sino-Soviet border conflict]]. In 2004, Russia agreed to transfer [[Yinlong Island]] and one half of [[Heixiazi Island]] to the PRC, ending an enduring border dispute.

==See also==
*[[Tungusic peoples]]
*[[Northern and southern China]]
*[[Manchukuo]]
*[[Chinese Tartary]]
*[[Religion in Northeast China]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

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*{{cite book|title=Die Eroberung von Qinghai unter Berücksichtigung von Tibet und Khams 1717 - 1727: anhand der Throneingaben des Grossfeldherrn Nian Gengyao|first=Shuhui|last=Wu|volume=Volume 2 of Tunguso Sibirica|edition=reprint|year=1995|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zqVug_wN4hEC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|isbn=3447037563|accessdate=10 March 2014| ref = {{harvid||}} }}
*{{cite book|title=The Russo-Japanese War in Global Perspective: World War Zero, Volume 2|editor1-first=David|editor1-last=Wolff|editor2-first=John W.|editor2-last=Steinberg|volume=Volume 2 of The Russo-Japanese War in Global Perspective|year=2007|edition=illustrated|publisher=BRILL|isbn=9004154167|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xlg0lM8f9Y4C&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|accessdate=1 April 2013| ref = {{harvid|Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|2006}} }}
*{{cite journal | jstor = 20062627 | doi = 10.1177/0097700405282349 |url= http://mcx.sagepub.com/content/32/1/3.abstract |archivedate = 25 March 2014 |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20140325231543/https://webspace.utexas.edu/hl4958/perspectives/Zhao%20-%20reinventing%20china.pdf |title= Reinventing China Imperial Qing Ideology and the Rise of Modern Chinese National Identity in the Early Twentieth Century|last1= Zhao|first1=Gang |last2= |first2= |volume= 32 |number=   1 |date= January 2006|website= |publisher= Sage Publications|accessdate=}}

==External links==
*{{commons category inline|Manchuria}}

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{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Manchuria| ]]
[[Category:East Asia]]
[[Category:Inner Asia]]
[[Category:Northeast Asia]]
[[Category:Regions of China]]
[[Category:Historical regions in Russia]]
{{Regions of the world}}