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'''Mamluk''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: {{lang|ar|مملوك}} ''mamlūk'' (singular), {{lang|ar|مماليك}} ''mamālīk'' (plural), meaning "property" , also [[Arabic transliteration|transliterated]] as ''mamlouk'', ''mamluq'', ''mamluke'', ''mameluk'', ''mameluke'', ''mamaluke'' or ''marmeluke'') is an Arabic designation for slaves. The term is most commonly used to refer to Muslim slave soldiers and Muslim rulers of slave origin.
[[File:Mameluke-in-Full-Armour.jpg|thumb|upright|An [[Egypt]]ian mamluk warrior in full armor and armed with lance, shield, [[Mameluke sword]] and pistols]]
[[File:Ottoman Mamluk horseman circa 1550.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] mamluk [[heavy cavalry]] armour, circa 1550]]

More specifically, it refers to:
* [[Ghaznavids]] of [[Greater Khorasan]] (977-1186)
* [[Khwarazmian dynasty]] in [[Transoxiana]] (1077–1231)
* [[Mamluk Dynasty (Delhi)]] (1206–1290)
* [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)]] (1250–1517)
** [[Bahri dynasty]] (1250−1382)
** [[Burji dynasty]] (1382−1517)
* [[Mamluk Dynasty (Iraq)]] (1704–1831)

The most enduring Mamluk realm was the knightly military [[caste]] in [[Egypt in the Middle Ages]], which developed from the ranks of slave soldiers. These were mostly enslaved [[Turkic peoples]],<ref name="Isichei 1997 192">{{cite book | last=Isichei | first=Elizabeth | year=1997 | title=A History of African Societies to 1870| publisher=Cambridge University Press| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3C2tzBSAp3MC&pg=PA192 | accessdate=8 November 2008 |pages=192}}</ref> [[Egypt|Egyptian Muslim soldiers]],  [[Copts|Egyptian Copts]],<ref name="ReferenceA">Thomas Philipp & Ulrich Haarmann. ''The Mamluks in Egyptian Politics and Society''.</ref> [[Circassians]],<ref name=GPG>{{cite book|last=McGregor|first=Andrew James|title=A Military History of Modern Egypt: From the Ottoman Conquest to the Ramadan War|year=2006|publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]]|isbn=9780275986018|page=15|quote=By the late fourteenth century Circassians from the north Caucasus region had become the majority in the Mamluk ranks.}}</ref> [[Abkhazians]],<ref>А.Ш.Кадырбаев, Сайф-ад-Дин Хайр-Бек - абхазский "король эмиров" Мамлюкского Египта (1517-1522), "Материалы первой международной научной конференции, посвященной 65-летию В.Г.Ардзинба". Сухум: АбИГИ, 2011, pp. 87-95</ref><ref>Thomas Philipp, Ulrich Haarmann (eds), ''The Mamluks in Egyptian Politics and Society.'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), pp. 115-116.</ref><ref>Jane Hathaway, ''The Politics of Households in Ottoman Egypt: The Rise of the Qazdaglis.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997, pp. 103-104.</ref> and [[Georgians]].<ref name=autogenerated1>"Relations of the Georgian Mamluks of Egypt with Their Homeland in the Last Decades of the Eighteenth Century." Daniel Crecelius and Gotcha Djaparidze. ''Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient'', Vol. 45, No. 3 (2002), pp. 320—341. ISSN 0022-4995.</ref><ref name="bbs">{{Google books|pCC4ffbOv_YC|page=19|Basra, the failed Gulf state: separatism and nationalism in southern Iraq}} By Reidar Visser</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Hathaway|first=Jane|title=The Military Household in Ottoman Egypt|journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies|date=February 1995|volume=27|issue=1|pages=39–52|doi=10.1017/s0020743800061572}}</ref> Many Mamluks were also of [[Balkans|Balkan]] origin ([[Albanians]], [[Greeks]], and [[South Slavs]]).<ref name="István Vásáry 2005">István Vásáry (2005) Cuman and Tatars, Cambridge University Press.</ref><ref name="T. Pavlidis 2011">T. Pavlidis, A Concise History of the Middle East, Chapter 11: Turks and Byzantine Decline, 2011</ref> The "mamluk phenomenon", as [[David Ayalon]] dubbed the creation of the specific warrior class,<ref>{{cite book|first=David|last=Ayalon|authorlink=David Ayalon|title=The Mamlūk military society|year=1979|publisher=Variorum Reprints|isbn=978-0-86078-049-6}}</ref> was of great political importance; for one thing, it endured for nearly 1000 years, from the ninth to the nineteenth centuries.

Over time, the mamluks became a powerful military knightly [[caste]] in various societies that were controlled by Muslim rulers. Particularly in [[Egypt]], but also in the [[Levant]], [[Iraq|Mesopotamia]], and [[India]], mamluks held political and military power. In some cases, they attained the rank of [[sultan]], while in others they held regional power as [[emir]]s or [[bey]]s. Most notably, mamluk factions seized the sultanate centered on [[Egypt]] and [[Syria]], and controlled it as the [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk Sultanate]] (1250–1517). The Mamluk Sultanate famously defeated the [[Ilkhanate]] at the [[Battle of Ain Jalut]]. They had earlier fought the western European Christian [[Crusades|Crusaders]] in 1154-1169 and 1213-1221, effectively driving them out of Egypt and the Levant. In 1302 the mamluks formally expelled the last Crusaders from the Levant, ending the era of the Crusades.<ref>{{cite web|last=Asbridge|first=Thomas|title=The Crusades Episode 3|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/episode/b01bqy7r/The_Crusades_Victory_and_Defeat/|publisher=BBC|accessdate=5 February 2012}}</ref>

While mamluks were purchased as property, their status was above ordinary slaves, who were not allowed to carry weapons or perform certain tasks. In places such as Egypt, from the [[Ayyubid dynasty]] to the time of [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt]], mamluks were considered to be “true lords" and "true warriors," with social status above the general population in [[Egypt]] and the [[Levant]]. In a sense they were like enslaved mercenaries.<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref name="Behrens-Abouseif, Doris 2008">Behrens-Abouseif, Doris. ''Cairo of the Mamluks: A History of Architecture and Its Culture''. New York: Macmillan, 2008.</ref>

In the Middle Ages, the Mamlukes took up the practice of [[furusiyya]] "chivalry" although Mamluk knights were [[slavery|slaves]] until their service ended. The Arabic term for a knight was ''fāris'' (plural ''fursān''),  The ''faris'' and the notion of ''furusiyya'' originated in [[Religion and culture in ancient Iran|pre-Muslim Persian brotherhoods]]. Within the [[Muslim world]], the ''fursān'' became prized as ideal warriors.

The ''fursān'' — whether free like [[Usama ibn Munqidh]] or enslaved professional warriors such as the [[ghilman]] and mamluks — were trained in the use of various weapons such as the sword, [[spear]], [[lance]], [[javelin]], [[mace (weapon)|mace]], [[bow and arrow]], and [[tabar (axe)|tabarzin]] or "saddle ax." (The Mamluk bodyguards known as the ''tabardariyyah.'') They were also trained in wrestling, and their [[martial arts|martial skills]] were honed first on foot as ''piéton'' and then perfected when as mounted warriors.<ref>Nicolle, '' Saracen Faris'', page 8-9.</ref> They were popularly used as heavy knightly cavalry by a number of different Islamic kingdoms and empires, including the [[Ayyubid dynasty]] and the [[Ottoman Empire]].

==Overview==
[[File:Three Mamelukes with lances on horseback.jpg|thumb|upright|Mamluk lancers, early 16th century (etching by [[Daniel Hopfer]])]]
[[File:A Mamluk from Aleppo.jpg|thumb|upright|A Mamluk nobleman from [[Aleppo]], 19th century]]

The origins of the mamluk system are disputed. Historians agree that an entrenched military caste such as the mamluks appeared to develop in Islamic societies beginning with the ninth-century [[Abbasid Caliphate]] of [[Baghdad]]. When in the ninth century has not been determined. Up until the 1990s, it was widely believed that the earliest mamluks were known as ''[[ghulam|ghilman]]'' (another term for slaves, and broadly synonymous<ref>See D. Sourdel's "Ghulam" in the ''Encyclopedia of Islam'' and David Ayalon's "Mamluk" in the ''Encyclopedia of Islam''. Ayalon uses "mamluk" to refer to military slaves in Egypt and Syria, and "ghulam" (sing. of ghilman) to refer to military slaves elsewhere.</ref>) and were bought by the Abbasid caliphs, especially [[al-Mu'tasim]] (833-842).

By the end of the 9th century, such warrior slaves had become the dominant element in the military. Conflict between these ghilman and the population of Baghdad prompted the caliph [[al-Mu'tasim]] to move his capital to the city of [[Samarra]], but this did not succeed in calming tensions. The caliph [[al-Mutawakkil]] was assassinated by some of these slave-soldiers in 861 (see [[Anarchy at Samarra]]).<ref>D. Sourdel. "Ghulam" in the ''Encyclopedia of Islam''.</ref>

Since the early 21st century, historians suggest that there was a distinction between a ghilman system, in Samarra, which did not have specialized training and was based on pre-existing Central Asian hierarchies. Adult slaves and freemen both served as warriros. The mamluk system developed later, after the return of the caliphate to Baghdad in the 870's. It included the systematic training of young slaves in military and martial skills. .<ref>See E. de la Vaissière, ''Samarcande et Samarra'', 2007, and also M. Gordon, ''The Breaking of a Thousand Swords'', 2001.</ref> The Mamluk system is considered to have been a small-scale experiment of [[al-Muwaffaq]], to combine the slaves' efficiency as warriors with improved reliability. This recent interpretation seems to have been accepted.<ref>See for instance the review in ''Der Islam'' 2012 of de la Vaissière's book by Christopher Melchert: 'Still, de la Vaissière’s dating of the Mamluk phenomenon herewith becomes the conventional wisdom'</ref>

After the fragmentation of the Abbasid Empire, military slaves, known as either mamluks or ghilman, were used throughout the Islamic world as the basis of military power. The [[Fatimid Caliphate]] of Egypt had forcibly taken adolescent male Armenians, Turks, Sudanese, and Copts from their families in order to be trained as slave soldiers. They formed the bulk of their military, and the rulers selected prized slaves to serve in their administration.<ref>Walker, Paul E. ''Exploring an Islamic Empire: Fatimid History and its Sources'' (London, I. B. Tauris, 2002)</ref> The powerful vizier [[Badr al-Jamali]], for example, was a mamluk from Armenia. In Iran and Iraq, the [[Buyid dynasty]] used Turkic slaves throughout their empire. The rebel [[al-Basasiri]] was a mamluk who eventually ushered in [[Seljuq dynasty|Seljuq dynastic rule]] in Baghdad after attempting a failed rebellion.<!-- If the rebellion failed, how did he usher in Seljuq rule? -->  When the later Abbasids regained military control over Iraq, they also relied on the ghilman as their warriors.<ref>Eric Hanne.  ''Putting the Caliph in His Place''.)</ref>

Under [[Saladin]] and the Ayyubids of Egypt, the power of the mamluks increased and they claimed the sultanate in 1250, ruling as the [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk Sultanate]].<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Throughout the Islamic world, rulers continued to use enslaved warriors until the 19th century.  The [[Ottoman Empire]]'s [[devşirme]], or "gathering" of young slaves for the [[Janissaries]], lasted until the 17th century. Regimes based on mamluk power thrived in such Ottoman provinces as the Levant and Egypt until the 19th century.

==Organization==
Under the Mamluk Sultanate of Cairo, Mamluks were purchased while still young males. They were raised in the barracks of the Citadel of Cairo. Because of their isolated social status (no social ties or political affiliations) and their austere military training, they were trusted to be loyal to their rulers.<ref name="Behrens-Abouseif, Doris 2008"/> When their training was completed, they were discharged, but remained attached to the patron who had purchased them. Mamluks relied on the help of their patron for career advancement, and likewise the patron’s reputation and power depended on his recruits. A Mamluk was "bound by a strong esprit de corps to his peers in the same household."<ref name="Behrens-Abouseif, Doris 2008"/>

Mamluks lived within their garrisons and mainly spent their time with each other. Their entertainments included sporting events such as archery competitions and presentations of mounted combat skills at least once a week. The intensive and rigorous training of each new recruit helped ensure continuity of Mamluk practices.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

Sultans owned the largest number of mamluks, but lesser [[amir]]s also owned their own troops. Many Mamluks were appointed or promoted to high positions throughout the empire, including army command.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> At first their status was non-hereditary. Sons of Mamluks (how and when did they make families? who were the women?) were prevented from following their father's role of life. However, over time, in places such as Egypt, the Mamluk forces became linked to existing power structures and gained significant amounts of influence on those powers.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

==Relations with homelands and families ==
In Egypt, studies have shown that mamluks from Georgia retained their [[Georgian language|native language]], were aware of the politics of the [[Caucasus|Caucasus region]], and received frequent visits from their parents or other relatives. In addition, they sent gifts to family members or gave money to build useful structures (a defensive tower, or even a church) in their native villages.<ref>"Relations of the Georgian Mamluks of Egypt with Their Homeland in the Last Decades of the Eighteenth Century." Daniel Crecelius and Gotcha Djaparidze. ''Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient'', Vol. 45, No. 3 (2002), pp. 320-341. ISSN 0022-4995.</ref>

==Egypt==
{{Main article|Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)}}

===Early Mamluks in Egypt===
[[File:BattleOfHoms1299.JPG|thumb|The [[battle of Wadi al-Khazandar]], 1299. depicting [[Mongol]] archers and Mamluk cavalry (14th-century illustration from a manuscript of the ''[[History of the Tartars|History of the Tatars]]'')]]
[[File:View from the citadel.JPG|thumb|[[Mosque-Madrassa of Sultan Hassan]] (left) along with the later [[Al-Rifa'i Mosque]] (right) and two Ottoman mosques (foreground) – Cairo]]

Throughout the past centuries, Egypt was controlled by the rulers notably the [[Ikhshidid dynasty|Ikhshidid]]s, [[Fatimid]]s and [[Ayyubid dynasty|Ayyubid]]s.  Throughout these dynasties, thousands of mamluk servants and guards continued to be employed, and even took high offices.  This increasing level of influence among the mamluk worried the [[Ayyubid dynasty|Ayyubid]]s in particular. Eventually a Mamluk rose to become sultan.<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref>David Nicole ''The Mamluks 1250-1570''</ref> According to Fabri, a historian had asserted that mamluks of Egyptian origin were enslaved Christians. He believed that after they were taken from their families, they became renegades.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Because Egyptian mamluks were enslaved Christians, Islamic rulers did not believe they were true believers of Islam.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

By 1200 Saladin's brother [[Al-Adil]] succeeded in securing control over the whole empire by defeating and killing or imprisoning his brothers and nephews in turn. With each victory Al-Adil incorporated the defeated mamluk retinue into his own. This process was repeated at Al-Adil's death in 1218, and at his son Al-Kamil's death in 1238. The Ayyubids became increasingly surrounded by the mamluks, who acted semi-autonomously as regional [[atabeg]]s. The mamluks increasingly became involved in the internal court politics of the kingdom itself as various factions used them as allies.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

===French attack and Mamluk takeover===
{{Main article|Bahri Mamluks}}
In June 1249, the [[Seventh Crusade]] under [[Louis IX of France]] landed in Egypt and took [[Damietta]]. After the Egyptian troops retreated at first, the sultan had more than 50 commanders hanged as [[Desertion|deserters]].

When the Egyptian sultan [[as-Salih Ayyub]] died, the power passed briefly to his son [[al-Muazzam Turanshah]] and then his favorite wife, the [[Armenians|Armenian]] [[Shajar al-Durr]]. She took control with mamluk support and launched a counterattack against the French. Troops of the Bahri commander [[Baibars]] defeated Louis's troops. The king delayed his retreat too long and was captured by the Mamluks in March 1250. He agreed to pay a ransom of 400,000 ''livres tournois'' to gain release (150,000 livres were never paid).<ref>[[Thomas Madden|Madden, Thomas F.]] ''Crusades: The Illustrated History''. 1st ed. Ann Arbor: [[University of Michigan Press]], 2005. 159</ref>

Because of political pressure for a male leader, Shajar married the Mamluk commander, [[Aybak]]. He was assassinated in his bath. In the ensuing power struggle that ensued, [[regent|viceregent]] [[Qutuz]], also a mamluk, took over. He formally founded the [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluke Sultanate]] and the [[Bahri Mamluks|Bahri mamluk dynasty]].

The first Mamluk dynasty was named Bahri after the name of one of the [[regiment]]s, the ''Bahriyyah'' or River Island regiment. Its name referred to their center on [[Rhoda Island]] in the [[Nile]]. The regiment consisted mainly of [[Kipchaks]] and [[Cumans]].<ref>István Vásáry (2005), ''Cumans and Tatars'', Cambridge University Press</ref>

[[File:Mamluk glassware vessels.jpg|thumb|left|Mamluk-Syrian glassware vessels from the 14th century; in the course of trade, the middle vase shown ended up in [[Yemen]] and then [[China]].]]

===Mamluks and the Mongols===
When the [[Mongol Empire]]'s troops of [[Hulagu Khan]] sacked [[Siege of Baghdad (1258)|Baghdad in 1258]] and advanced towards Syria, the Mamluk emir [[Baibars]] left Damascus for Cairo. There he was welcomed by Sultan Qutuz.<ref>[[Al-Maqrizi]], p. 509/vol.1 , Al Selouk Leme'refatt Dewall al-Melouk, Dar al-kotob, 1997.</ref> After taking Damascus, Hulagu demanded that Qutuz surrender Egypt. Qutuz had Hulagu's envoys killed and, with Baibars' help, mobilized his troops.

When the great [[Möngke Khan]] died in action against the [[Song dynasty#Southern Song, 1127–1279|Southern Song]], Hulagu pulled the majority of his forces out of Syria to attend the [[kurultai]] (funeral ceremony). He left his lieutenant, the Christian [[Kitbuqa]], in charge with a token force of about 18,000 men as a garrison.<ref>David Chambers, ''The Devil's Horsemen'', Atheneum, 1979. p. 153-155</ref> Qutuz drew the Ilkhanate army into an ambush near the [[Orontes River]], routed them at the [[Battle of Ain Jalut]] in 1260, and captured and executed Kitbuqa (see [[Qutuz]]).

After this great triumph, Qutuz was assassinated by conspiring Mamluks. It was widely said that Baibars, who seized power, had been involved in the assassination plot. In the following centuries, the mamluks ruled discontinuously, with an average span of seven years.

The Mamluks defeated the Ilkhanates a second time in the [[First Battle of Homs]] and began to drive them back east. In the process they consolidated their power over Syria, fortified the area, and formed mail routes and diplomatic connections among the local princes. Baibars' troops attacked [[Acre, Israel#Arab rule and the Crusades|Acre]] in 1263, captured [[Caesarea]] in 1265, and took [[Antioch]] in 1268.

[[File:Siege of Tripoli Painting (1289).jpg|thumb|upright|Mamluks attacking at the [[Fall of Tripoli (1289)|Fall of Tripoli]] in 1289]]
Mamluks also defeated new Ilkhanate attacks in Syria in 1271 and 1281 (the [[Second Battle of Homs]]). They were defeated by the Ilkhanates and their Christian allies at the [[Battle of Wadi al-Khazandar]] in 1299. Soon after that the Mamluks defeated the Ilkhanate again in 1303/1304 and 1312. Finally, the Ilkhanates and the Mamluks signed a treaty of peace in 1323.

===Burji dynasty===
{{Main article|Burji dynasty}}
By the late fourteenth century, the majority of the Mamluk ranks were made up of [[Circassians]] from the [[North Caucasus]] region, whose young males had been frequently captured for slavery.<ref name=GPG/> In 1382 the [[Burji dynasty]] took over when [[Barquq]] was proclaimed sultan. The name "Burji" referred to their center at the [[citadel]] of [[Cairo]]. The dynasty officials were composed mostly of [[Circassians]].

Barkuk became an enemy of [[Timur]], who threatened to invade Syria. Timur invaded Syria, defeating the Mamluk army, and he sacked Aleppo and captured Damascus. The Ottoman sultan, [[Bayezid I]], then invaded Syria. After Timur's death in 1405, the Mamluk sultan [[an-Nasir Faraj]] regained control of Syria. Frequently facing rebellions by local [[emir]]s, he was forced to abdicate in 1412. In 1421, Egypt was attacked by the [[Kingdom of Cyprus]], but the Egyptians forced the Cypriotes to acknowledge the suzerainty of the Egyptian sultan [[Barsbay]]. During Barsbay's reign, Egypt's population became greatly reduced from what it had been a few centuries before; it had one-fifth the number of towns.<!-- Why? disease, famine, warfare? -->

Al-Ashraf came to power in 1453. He had friendly relations with the Ottoman Empire, which captured [[Constantinople]] later that year, causing great rejoicings in Muslim Egypt. However, under the reign of [[Khoshqadam]], Egypt began the struggle between the Egyptian and the Ottoman sultanates. In 1467 sultan [[Qaitbay]] offended the Ottoman sultan [[Bayezid II]], whose brother was poisoned. Bayezid II seized [[Adana]], [[Tarsus, Mersin|Tarsus]] and other places within Egyptian territory, but was eventually defeated. Qaitbay also tried to help the [[Islam in Spain|Muslims in Spain]], who were suffering after the Catholic [[Reconquista]], by threatening the Christians in Syria, but he had little effect in Spain. He died in 1496, several hundred thousand ducats in debt to the great trading families of the Kingdom of [[Venice]], an eastern Mediterranean port in present-day Italy.

===Portuguese-Mamluk Wars===
[[Vasco da Gama]] in 1497 sailed around the [[Cape of Good Hope]] and pushed his way west across the Indian Ocean to the shores of [[Zamorin|Malabar]] and [[Kozhikode]]. There he attacked the fleets that carried freight and Muslim pilgrims from India to the [[Red Sea]], and struck terror into the potentates all around. Various engagements took place. Cairo's Mamluk sultan [[Al-Ashraf Qansuh al-Ghawri]] was affronted at the attacks around the Red Sea, the loss of tolls and traffic, the indignities to which [[Mecca]] and its port were subjected, and above all for losing one of his ships. He vowed vengeance upon Portugal, first sending monks from the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]] as envoys, he threatened [[Pope Julius II]] that if he did not check  [[Manuel I of Portugal]] in his depredations on the Indian Sea, he would destroy all Christian holy places.<ref>Palmira Johnson Brummett, [https://books.google.com/books?id=bTnK1csz0swC&lpg=PA113&dq=Mamluk%20pope%20portuguese&pg=PA113#v=onepage&q=Mamluk%20pope%20portuguese&f=false "Ottoman seapower and Levantine diplomacy in the age of discovery"], SUNY Press, 1994, ISBN 0-7914-1701-8</ref>

The rulers of [[Gujarat]] in India and [[Yemen]] also turned for help to the Mamluk Sultan of Egypt. They wanted a fleet to be armed in the Red Sea that could protect their important trading sea routes from Portuguese attack. [[Jeddah]] was soon fortified as a harbor of refuge so [[Arabia]] and the Red Sea were protected. But the fleets in the Indian Ocean were still at the mercy of the enemy.

The last Mamluk sultan, ''Al-Ghawri,'' fitted out a fleet of 50 vessels. As Mamluks had little expertise in naval warfare, he sought help from the Ottomans to develop this naval enterprise.<ref>Andrew James McGregor, [https://books.google.com/books?id=QZpWx-dgbYcC&lpg=PA20&dq=Mamluk%20pope%20portuguese&pg=PA20#v=onepage&q=Mamluk%20pope%20portuguese&f=false ''A Military History of Modern Egypt: from the Ottoman Conquest to the Ramadan War''], Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006 ISBN 0-275-98601-2</ref> In 1508 at the [[Battle of Chaul (1508)|Battle of Chaul]], the Mamluk fleet defeated the Portuguese viceroy's son [[Lourenço de Almeida]].

But, in the following year, the Portuguese won the [[Battle of Diu (1509)|Battle of Diu]] and wrested the port city of [[Diu, India|Diu]] from the [[Gujarat Sultanate]]. Some years after, [[Afonso de Albuquerque]] attacked [[Aden]], and Egyptian troops suffered disaster from the Portuguese in Yemen. Al-Ghawri fitted out a new fleet to punish the enemy and protect the Indian trade. Before it could exert much power, Egypt had lost its  sovereignty. The Ottoman Empire took over Egypt and the Red Sea, together with [[Mecca]] and all its Arabian interests.

===Ottomans and the end of the Mamluk Sultanate===
The Ottoman Sultan [[Bayezid II]] was engaged in warfare in southern Europe when a new era of hostility with Egypt began in 1501. It arose out of the relations with the [[Safavid dynasty]] in [[Persia]]. Shah [[Ismail I]] sent an embassy to the [[Republic of Venice]] via Syria, inviting Venice to ally with Persia and recover its territory taken by the Ottomans. [[Al-Ashraf Qansuh al-Ghawri|Mameluk Egyptian sultan Al-Ghawri]] was charged by [[Selim I]] with giving the Persian envoys passage through Syria on their way to Venice and harboring refugees. To appease him, Al-Ghawri placed in confinement the Venetian merchants then in Syria and Egypt, but after a year released them.<ref name="James Waterson, The Mamluks">James Waterson, "The Mamluks"</ref>

After the [[Battle of Chaldiran]] in 1514, Selim attacked the bey of [[Dulkadirids]], as Egypt's vassal had stood aloof, and sent his head to Al-Ghawri. Now secure against Persia, in 1516 he formed a great army for the conquest of Egypt, but gave out that he intended further attacks on Persia.

In 1515, Selim began the war which led to the conquest Egypt and its dependencies. Mamluk cavalry proved no match for the Ottoman artillery and [[Janissaries|Janissary infantry]]. On 24 August 1516, at the [[Battle of Marj Dabiq]], Sultan Al-Ghawri was killed. Syria passed into Turkish possession, an event welcomed in many places as it was seen as deliverance from the Mamelukes.<ref name="James Waterson, The Mamluks"/>

The Mamluke Sultanate survived in Egypt until 1517, when Selim captured Cairo on 20 January.
Although not in the same form as under the Sultanate, the Ottoman Empire retained the Mamluks as an Egyptian ruling class and the Mamluks and the Burji family succeeded in regaining much of their influence, but as vassals of the Ottomans.<ref name="James Waterson, The Mamluks"/><ref>Thomas Philipp, Ulrich Haarmann (1998). The Mamluks in Egyptian Politics and Society</ref>

===Mamluk independence from the Ottomans===
{{Main article|History of Ottoman Egypt}}
[[File:Carle Vernet Mameluck en Attaque.jpg|thumb|Charge of the Mamluk [[cavalry]] by [[Carle Vernet]]]]

In 1768, Sultan [[Ali Bey Al-Kabir]] declared independence from the Ottomans. However, the Ottomans crushed the movement and retained their position after his defeat. By this time new slave recruits were introduced from Georgia in the Caucasus.

====Napoleon invades====
{{Main article|French campaign in Egypt and Syria}}

[[File:Myrbach-Charge of the Mamluks.jpg|thumb|left|Charge of the Mamluks during the [[Battle of the Pyramids]] by [[Felician Myrbach]]. An elite body of cavalry whom the French encountered during their [[French Campaign in Egypt and Syria|campaign in Egypt in 1798]], the Mamluks could trace their lineage of service to the Ottomans back to the mid-13th century.]]
In 1798, the ruling [[French Directory|Directory]] of the [[French First Republic|Republic of France]] authorised a campaign in "The Orient" to protect French trade interests and undermine Britain's access to India. To this end, [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] led an [[Armée d'Orient (1798)|Armée d'Orient]] to Egypt.

The French defeated a Mamluk army in the [[Battle of the Pyramids]] and drove the survivors out to [[Upper Egypt]]. The Mamluks relied on massed cavalry charges, changed only by the addition of [[musket]]. The French infantry [[Infantry square|formed square]] and held firm. Despite multiple victories and an initially successful expedition into Syria, mounting conflict in Europe and the earlier defeat of the supporting French fleet by the British [[Royal Navy]] at the [[Battle of the Nile]] decided the issue.

On 14 September 1799 General [[Jean Baptiste Kléber]] established a mounted company of Mamluk auxiliaries and Syrian [[Janissaries]] from Turkish troops captured at the [[Siege of Acre (1799)|siege of Acre]]. [[Jacques-François Menou|Menou]] reorganized the company on 7 July 1800, forming 3 companies of 100 men each and renaming it the "Mamluks de la République". In 1801 General [[Jean Rapp]] was sent to Marseille to organize a squadron of 250 Mamluks. On 7 January 1802 the previous order was canceled and the squadron reduced to 150 men. The list of effectives on 21 April 1802 reveals 3 officers and 155 other ranks. By decree of 25 December 1803 the Mamluks were organized into a company attached to the [[Chasseurs|Chasseurs-à-Cheval]] of the [[Imperial Guard (Napoleon I)|Imperial Guard]] (see [[Mamelukes of the Imperial Guard]]).

Napoleon left with his personal guard in late 1799. His successor in Egypt, General [[Jean Baptiste Kléber]], was assassinated on 14 June 1800. Command of the Army in Egypt fell to [[Jacques-François Menou]]. Isolated and out of supplies, Menou surrendered to the British in 1801.

===After Napoleon===
After the departure of French troops in 1801 the Mamluks continued their struggle for independence; this time against the Ottoman Empire and Great Britain. In 1803, Mamluk leaders [[Ibrahim Bey]] and [[Osman Bey al-Bardisi]] wrote to the [[Russian Empire|Russia]]n consul-general, asking him to mediate with the Sultan to allow them to negotiate for a cease-fire, and a return to their homeland Georgia. The Russian ambassador in [[Constantinople]] refused however to intervene, because of nationalist unrest in Georgia that might have been encouraged by a Mamluk return.<ref name="James Waterson, The Mamluks"/>

In 1805, the population of Cairo rebelled. This provided a chance for the Mamluks to seize power, but internal friction prevented them from exploiting this opportunity. In 1806, the Mamluks defeated the Turkish forces in several clashes. in June the rival parties concluded an agreement by which [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali]], (appointed as governor of Egypt on 26 March 1806), was to be removed and authority returned to the Mamluks. However, they were again unable to capitalize on this opportunity due to discord between factions. Muhammad Ali retained his authority.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

===End of Mamluk power in Egypt===
[[File:Mamluks, Horace Vernet.jpg|thumb|[[Muhammad Ali's seizure of power#Defeat of the Mamelukes|Massacre of the Mamelukes]] at the Cairo citadel, 1811]]

Muhammad Ali knew that he would have to deal with the Mamluks if he wanted to control Egypt. They were still the feudal owners of Egypt and their land was still the source of wealth and power. However the economic strain of sustaining the military manpower necessary to defend the Mamluks's system from the Europeans and Turks would eventually weaken them to the point of collapse.<ref>Abu-Lughod, Janet L. ''Before European Hegemony The World System A.D. 1250-1350''. New York: Oxford UP, USA, 1991. PP. 213</ref>

On 1 March 1811, Muhammad Ali invited all of the leading Mamluks to his palace to celebrate the declaration of war against the Wahhabis in Arabia. Between 600 and 700 Mamluks paraded for this purpose in [[Cairo]]. Muhammad Ali's forces killed almost all of these near the Al-Azab gates in a narrow road down from Mukatam Hill. This ambush came to be known as the [[Muhammad Ali's seizure of power|Massacre of the Citadel]]. According to contemporary reports, only one Mamluk, whose name is given variously as Amim (also Amyn), or Heshjukur (a Besleney), survived when he forced his horse to leap from the walls of the citadel.<ref>For the use of the name Amim, see Giovanni Finati, ''Narrative of the Life and Adventure of Giovanni Finati native of Ferrara'', 1830; for Heshjukur, Mustafa Mahir, ''Marks of the Caucasian Tribes and Some Stories and Notable Events Related to Their Leaders'', Boulaq, Cairo, 1892</ref>

During the following week an estimated 3,000 Mamluks and their relatives were killed throughout Egypt, by Muhammad's regular troops. In the citadel of Cairo alone more than 1,000 Mamluks died.

Despite Muhammad Ali's destruction of the Mamluks in Egypt, a party of them escaped and fled south into what is now [[Sudan]]. In 1811, these Mamluks established a state at [[Dunqulah]] in the [[Kingdom of Sennar|Sennar]] as a base for their slave trading. In 1820, the sultan of Sennar informed Muhammad Ali that he was unable to comply with a demand to expel the Mamluks. In response, the pasha sent 4,000 troops to invade Sudan, clear it of Mamluks, and reclaim it for Egypt. The [[pasha]]'s forces received the submission of the kashif, dispersed the Dunqulah Mamluks, conquered [[Kordofan]], and accepted Sennar's surrender from the last [[Funj]] sultan, [[Badi VII]].

==Other Mamluk regimes==
There were various places in which mamluks gained political or military power as a self-replicating military community.

===South Asia===
{{Main article|Mamluk Sultanate (Delhi)}}
In 1206, the Mamluk commander of the Muslim forces in the Indian subcontinent, [[Qutb al-Din Aibak]], proclaimed himself Sultan, becoming in effect the [[Mamluk Sultanate in Dehli]], which lasted until 1290.
{{Further information|Delhi Sultanate}}

===Iraq===
{{Main article|Mamluk dynasty of Iraq}}
Mamluk corps were first introduced in [[Iraq]] by [[Hasan Pasha (Mamluk)|Hasan Pasha]] of [[Baghdad]] in 1702. From 1747 to 1831 Iraq was ruled, with short intermissions, by Mamluk officers of [[Georgian people|Georgian]] origin<ref name="bbs"/><ref>''The Arab Lands under Ottoman Rule: 1516-1800''. Jane Hathaway, Karl Barbir. Person Education Limited, 2008, p. 96. ISBN 978-0-582-41899-8.</ref> who succeeded in asserting autonomy from the [[Sublime Porte]], suppressed tribal revolts, curbed the power of the Janissaries, restored order, and introduced a program of modernization of the economy and the military. In 1831 the Ottomans overthrew [[Dawud Pasha]], the last Mamluk ruler, and imposed direct control over Iraq.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-22897 "Iraq"] ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' Online. Retrieved 15 October 2007</ref>

==Mamluk rulers==

===In Egypt===
{{main article|List of Mamluk sultans}}

====Bahri Dynasty====
*1250 [[Shajar al-Durr]] ([[al-Salih Ayyub]]'s Widow de facto ruler of Egypt)
*1250 [[Aybak]]
*1257 [[Al-Mansur Ali]]
*1259 [[Qutuz]]
*1260 [[Baibars]]
*1277 [[Al-Said Barakah]]
*1280 [[Solamish]]
*1280 [[Qalawun]]
*1290 [[al-Ashraf Salah-ad-Din Khalil]]
*1294 [[al-Nasir Muhammad]] ''first reign''
*1295 [[al-Adil Kitbugha]]
*1297 [[Lajin]]
*1299 [[al-Nasir Muhammad]] ''second reign''
*1309 [[al-Muzaffar Rukn-ad-Din Baybars II al-Jashankir]]
*1310 [[al-Nasir Muhammad]] ''third reign''
*1340 [[Saif ad-Din Abu-Bakr]]
*1341 [[Kujuk]]
*1342 [[An-Nasir Ahmad, Sultan of Egypt]]
*1342 [[As-Salih Ismail, Sultan of Egypt]]
*1345 [[Al-Kamil Sha'ban]]
*1346 [[Al-Muzaffar Hajji]]
*1347 [[al-Nasir Badr-ad-Din Abu al-Ma'aly al-Hassan]] ''first reign''
*1351 [[al-Salih Salah-ad-Din Ibn Muhammad]]
*1354 [[al-Nasir Badr-ad-Din Abu al-Ma'aly al-Hassan]] ''second reign''
*1361 [[al-Mansur Salah-ad-Din Mohamed Ibn Hajji]]
*1363 [[al-Ashraf Zein al-Din Abu al-Ma'ali ibn Shaban]]
*1376 [[al-Mansur Ala-ad-Din Ali Ibn al-Ashraf Shaban]]
*1382 al-Salih Salah Zein al-Din Hajji II ''first reign''
[[File:AMamelukeonhorsebackwithaPitonorfoo.jpg|thumb|upright|A Mamluk on horseback, with a Piéton or foot-soldier mamluk and a [[Bedouin]] soldier, 1804]]

====Burji Dynasty====
*1382 [[Barquq]], ''first reign''
*1389 Hajji II ''second reign'' (with honorific title al-Muzaffar or al-Mansur) – Temporary Bahri rule
*1390 [[Barquq]], ''Second reign'' – Burji rule re-established
*1399 An-Nasir Naseer ad-Din Faraj
*1405 Al-Mansoor Azzaddin Abdal Aziz
*1405 An-Nasir Naseer ad-Din Faraj (second time)
*1412 [[Al-Musta'in (Cairo)|al-Musta'in]] ([[Abbasid Caliph]], proclaimed as Sultan)
*1412 Al-Muayad Sayf ad-Din Shaykh
*1421 Al-Muzaffar Ahmad
*1421 Az-Zahir Saif ad-Din Tatar
*1421 As-Salih Nasir ad-Din Muhammad
*1422 [[Barsbay]]
*1438 Al-Aziz Djamal ad-Din Yusuf
*1438 [[Jaqmaq]]
*1453 Al-Mansoor Fahr ad-Din Osman
*1453 Al-Ashraf Sayf ad-Din Enal
*1461 Al-Muayad Shihab ad-Din Ahmad
*1461 Az-Zahir Sayf ad-Din Khushkadam
*1467 Az-Zahir Sayf ad-Din Belbay
*1468 Az-Zahir Temurbougha
*1468 [[Qaitbay]]
*1496 [[al-Nasir Abu al-Sa'adat Muhammad bin Qait Bay]] ''first reign''
*1497 [[Qansuh Al-Burji]]
*1497 [[al-Nasir Abu al-Sa'adat Muhammad bin Qait Bay]] ''second reign''
*1498 [[Qansuh Al-Ashrafi]]
*1500 Al-Bilal Ayub
*1500 [[Janbalat]]
*1501 [[Tuman bay I]]
*1501 [[Al-Ashraf Qansuh al-Ghawri]]
*1517 [[Tuman bay II]]

===In India===
[[File:QutubuddinAibakMausoleum.JPG|thumb|upright|The mausoleum of [[Qutb al-Din Aibak]] in [[Anarkali]], [[Lahore]], [[Pakistan]].]]
*1206 [[Qutb-ud-din Aybak]], founded [[Mamluk Sultanate (Delhi)|Mamluk Sultanate, Delhi]]
*1210 [[Aram Shah]]
*1211 [[Shams ud din Iltutmish]]. Son-in-law of Qutb-ud-din Aybak.
*1236 [[Rukn ud din Firuz]]. Son of Iltutmish.
*1236 [[Razia Sultana]]. Daughter of Iltutmish.
*1240 [[Muiz ud din Bahram]]. Son of Iltutmish.
*1242 [[Ala ud din Masud]]. Son of Rukn ud din.
*1246 [[Nasir ud din Mahmud]]. Son of Iltutmish.
*1266 [[Ghiyas ud din Balban]]. Ex-slave, son-in-law of Iltutmish.
*1286 [[Muiz ud din Qaiqabad]]. Grandson of Balban and Nasir ud din.
*1290 [[Kayumars of Delhi|Kayumars]]. Son of Muiz ud din.

===In Iraq===
*1704 [[Hasan Pasha (Mamluk)|Hasan Pasha]]
*1723 [[Ahmad Pasha of Baghdad|Ahmad Pasha]], son of Hasan
*1749 [[Sulayman Abu Layla Pasha]], son-in-law of Ahmad
*1762 [[Omar Pasha of Baghdad|Omar Pasha]], son of Ahmad
*1780 [[Sulayman Pasha the Great]], son of Omar
*1802 [[Ali Pasha of Baghdad|Ali Pasha]], son of Omar
*1807 [[Sulayman Pasha the Little]], son of Sulayman Great
*1813 [[Said Pasha of Baghdad|Said Pasha]], son of Sulayman Great
*1816 [[Dawud Pasha]] (1816–1831)

===In Acre===
*1805 [[Sulayman Pasha al-Adil]], ''mamluk'' of [[Jezzar Pasha]]
*1819 [[Abdullah Pasha ibn Ali]] (1819-1831)

==="Mamluk" as derogatory term===
{{unreferenced section|date=April 2016}}
The term Mamluk became known throughout Europe following the Ottoman conquests of Egypt and the Levant in 1516–1517. It was used as a derogatory term in [[Geneva]], just prior to the overthrow of [[Savoy]] rule in 1526 by the supporters of [[Philibert Berthelier (Geneva patriot)|Philibert Berthelier]], to describe the faction in the state council that advocated the continued rule of the Savoy dynasty. As Mamluk means "slaves of the king", the republican faction in Geneva used it to suggest that the supporters of Savoy rule were the enemies of freedom.

==Office titles and terminology==
{{unreferenced section|date=October 2013}}
The following terms originally come from either [[Turkish language|Turkish]] or [[Ottoman Turkish language]] (the latter composed of Turkish, Arabic, and Persian words and grammar structures).

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! English
! Arabic
! Notes
|-
| ''Alama Sultaniya''
| {{lang|ar|علامة سلطانية}}
| The mark or signature of the Sultan put on his decrees, letters and documents.
|-
| ''Al-Nafir al-Am''
| {{lang|ar|النفير العام}}
| General emergency declared during war
|-
| ''Amir''
| {{lang|ar|أمير}}
| Prince
|-
| ''Amir Akhur''
| {{lang|ar|أمير آخور}}
| supervisor of the royal stable (from Persian {{lang|fa|آخور}} meaning stable)
|-
| ''Amir Majlis''
| {{lang|ar|أمير مجلس}}
| Guard of Sultan's seat and bed
|-
| ''Atabek''
| {{lang|ar|أتابك}}
| Commander in chief (literally "father-lord," originally meaning an appointed step-father for a non-Mamluk minor prince)
|-
|-
| ''Astadar''
| {{lang|ar|أستادار}}
| Chief of the royal servants
|-
| ''Barid Jawi''
| {{lang|ar|بريد جوى}}
| Airmail  (mail sent by carrier-pigeons, amplified by Sultan [[Baibars]])
|-
| ''Bayt al-Mal''
| {{lang|ar|بيت المال}}
| treasury
|-
| ''Cheshmeh''
| {{lang|ar|ششمه}}
|  A pool of water, or fountain (literally "eye"), from Persian {{lang|fa|[[wikt:چشمه|چشمه]]}}
|-
| ''Dawadar''
| {{lang|ar|دوادار}}
| Holder of Sultan's ink bottle (from Persian {{lang|fa|دوات‌دار}} meaning bearer of the ink bottle)
|-
| ''Fondok''
| {{lang|ar|فندق}}
| Hotel (some famous hotels in Cairo during the Mamluk era were ''Dar al-Tofah, Fondok Bilal'' and ''Fondok al-Salih'')
|-
| ''Hajib''
| {{lang|ar|حاجب}}
| Doorkeeper of sultan's court
|-
| ''Iqta''
| {{lang|ar|إقطاع}}
| Revenue from land allotment
|-
| ''Jamkiya''
| {{lang|ar|جامكية}}
| Salary paid to a Mamluk
|-
| ''Jashnakir''
| {{lang|ar|جاشنكير}}
| Food taster of the sultan (to assure his beer was not poisoned)
|-
| ''Jomdar''
| {{lang|ar|جمدار}}
| An official at the department of the Sultan's clothing (from Persian {{lang|fa|جامه‌دار}}, meaning keeper of cloths)
|-
| ''Kafel al-mamalek al-sharifah al-islamiya al-amir al-amri''
| {{lang|ar|كافل الممالك الشريفة الاسلامية الأمير الأمرى}}
| Title of the Vice-sultan (Guardian of the Prince of Command [lit. Commander-in-command] of the Dignified Islamic Kingdoms)
|-
| ''Khan''
| {{lang|ar|خان}}
| A store that specialized in selling a certain commodity
|-
| ''Khaskiya''
| {{lang|ar|خاصكية}}
| Courtiers of the sultan and most trusted royal mamluks who functioned as the Sultan's bodyguards/ A privileged group around a prominent Amir (from Persian {{lang|fa|خاصگیان}}, meaning close associates)
|-
| ''Khastakhaneh''
| {{lang|ar|خاصتاخانة}}
|  Hospital (from Ottoman Turkish {{lang|ota|[[wikt:خسته‌خانه|خسته‌خانه]]}}, from Persian)
|-
| ''Khond''
| {{lang|ar|خند}}
| Wife of the sultan
|-
| ''Khushdashiya''
| {{lang|ar|خشداشية}}
| Mamluks belonging to the same Amir or Sultan.
|-
| ''Mahkamat al-Mazalim''
| {{lang|ar|محكمة المظالم}}
| Court of complaint. A court that heard cases of complaints of people against state officials. This court was headed by the sultan himself.
|-
| ''Mamalik Kitabeya''
| {{lang|ar|مماليك كتابية}}
| Mamluks still attending training classes and who still live at the Tebaq (campus)
|-
| ''Mamalik Sultaneya''
| {{lang|ar|مماليك سلطانية}}
|  Mamluks of the sultan;to distinguish from the Mamluks of the Amirs (princes)
|-
| ''Modwarat al-Sultan''
| {{lang|ar|مدورة السلطان}}
|  Sultan's tent which he used during travel.
|-
| ''Mohtaseb''
| {{lang|ar|محتسب}}
| Controller of markets, public works and local affairs.
|-
| ''Morqadar''
| {{lang|ar|مرقدار}}
| Works in the Royal Kitchen (from Persian {{lang|fa|مرغ‌دار}} meaning one responsible for the fowl)
|-
| ''Mushrif''
| {{lang|ar|مشرف}}
| Supervisor of the Royal Kitchen
|-
| ''Na'ib Al-Sultan''
| {{lang|ar|نائب السلطان}}
| Vice-sultan
|-
|''Qa'at al-insha'a''
| {{lang|ar|قاعة الإنشاء}}
| Chancery hall
|-
| ''Qadi al-Qoda''
| {{lang|ar|قاضى القضاة}}
| Chief justice
|-
|''Qalat al-Jabal''
| {{lang|ar|قلعة الجبل}}
| Citadel of the Mountain (the abode and court of the sultan in Cairo)
|-
| ''Qaranisa''
| {{lang|ar|قرانصة}}
| Mamluks who moved to the service of a new Sultan or from the service of an Amir to a sultan.
|-
| ''Qussad''
| {{lang|ar|قصاد}}
| Secret couriers and agents who kept the sultan informed
|-
|''Ostaz''
| {{lang|ar|أستاذ}}
| Benefactor of Mamluks (the Sultan or the Emir) (from Persian استاد)
|-
| ''Rank''
| {{lang|ar|رنك}}
| An emblem that distinguished the rank and position of a Mamluk (probably from Persian {{lang|fa|[[wikt:رنگ|رنگ]]}} meaning color)
|-
| ''Sanjaqi''
| {{lang|ar|سنجاقى}}
| A standard-bearer of the Sultan.
|-
| ''Sharabkhana''
| {{lang|ar|شرابخانة}}
| Storehouse for drinks, medicines and glass-wares of the sultan. (from Persian {{lang|fa|شراب‌خانه}} meaning wine cellar)
|-
| ''Silihdar''
| {{lang|ar|سلحدار}}
| Arm-Bearer (from Arabic {{lang|ar|سلاح}} + Persian {{lang|fa|دار}}, meaning arm-bearer)
|-
| ''Tabalkhana''
| {{lang|ar|طبلخانه}}
| The amir responsible for the Mamluk military band, from Persian {{lang|fa|طبل‌خانه}}
|-
| ''Tashrif''
| {{lang|ar|تشريف}}
| Head-covering worn by a Mamluk during the ceremony of inauguration to the position of Amir.
|-
| ''Tawashi''
| {{lang|ar|طواشى}}
| A [[Eunuch (court official)|Eunuch]] responsible for serving the wives of the sultan and supervising new Mamluks.
|-
| ''Tebaq''
| {{lang|ar|طباق}}
| Campus of the Mamluks at the citadel of the mountain
|-
| ''Tishtkhana''
| {{lang|ar|طشتخانة}}
|Storehouse used for the laundry of the sultan (from Persian {{lang|fa|تشت‌خانه}}, meaning tub room)
|-
|''Wali''
| {{lang|ar|والى}}
|  viceroy
|-
| ''Yuq''
| {{lang|ar|يوق}}
| A large linen closet used in every mamluk home, which stored pillows and sheets. (Related to the present Crimean Tatar word Yuqa, "to sleep". In modern Turkish: Yüklük.)
|}

==Gallery==

<gallery mode=packed>
File:Mamluk.jpg|Portrait of a Mamluk, 1779
File:Mamluke.jpg|A Mamluk cavalryman, drawing by [[Carle Vernet]], 1810
File:El dos de mayo de 1808 en Madrid.jpg|''[[The Second of May 1808|The Second of May 1808: The Charge of the Mamluks]]'' by [[Francisco de Goya]] (1814)
File:Le Mameluke Roustam by Jacques Nicolas Paillot de Montabert 1806.jpg|Armenian mamluk [[Roustam Raza]] was [[Napoleon]]'s personal bodyguard; portrait by [[Jacques-Nicolas Paillot de Montabert]]
File:62emeMarmaluke.jpg|Soldiers of Napoleon's 62ème régiment de ligne and a Mameluk ([[historical reenactment]])
File:USMC Marmeluke.JPG|Today's [[U.S. Marine Corps]] officers' [[Mameluke sword]] resembles those used by the Mamluks
</gallery>

==See also==
*[[Bahri dynasty]]
*[[Black Guard]]
*[[Burji dynasty]]
*[[Feudalism]]
*[[Ghilman]]
*[[Janissaries]]
*[[Jerusalem in the Mamluk period]]
*[[Mameluco]]
*[[Mameluke sword]]
*[[Mamluk architecture]]
*[[Saqaliba]]
*[[Seventh Crusade]]
*[[Sultan of Egypt]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book|author=Janet L. Abu-Lughod|title=Before European hegemony: the world system A.D. 1250–1350|date=1 February 1991|publisher=Oxford University Press US|isbn=978-0-19-506774-3}}
* A. Allouche: ''Mamluk Economics: A Study and Translation of Al-Maqrizi's Ighathat.'' Salt Lake City, 1994
* {{cite book|author=Reuven Amitai-Preiss|title=Mongols and Mamluks: the Mamluk-Īlkhānid War, 1260–1281|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dIaFbxD64nUC|accessdate=20 June 2011|year=1995|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-46226-6}}
*Matthew Gordon, "The Breaking of a Thousand Swords: A History of the Turkish Military of Samarra (200-275 Ah/815-889 Ce)", SUNY Press, 2001.
* Ulrich Haarmann: ''Das Herrschaftssystem der Mamluken'', in: Halm / Haarmann (Hrsg.): ''Geschichte der arabischen Welt''. C.H. Beck (2004), ISBN 3-406-47486-1
* E. de la Vaissière, ''Samarcande et Samarra. Elites d'Asie centrale dans l'empire Abbasside'', Peeters, 2007 [http://www.peeters-leuven.be/boekoverz.asp?nr=8356 Peeters-leuven.be] {{fr icon}}
* James Waterson, "The Mamluks" (''History Today'' March 2006)
*{{cite book|author=Thomas Philipp, Ulrich Haarmann|title=The Mamluks in Egyptian Politics and Society, Pg 1–101|url=https://books.google.com.au/books|year=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Mamluks}}
{{NIE Poster|year=1905|Mamelukes}}
* [http://mamluk.uchicago.edu/ Mamluk Studies Resources] from the  Chicago Online Bibliography of Mamluk Studies and The Chicago Online Encyclopedia of Mamluk Studies Review at the [[University of Chicago]]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b03bfmlh The Mamluks] at BBC's ''[[In Our Time (BBC Radio 4)|In Our Time]]''
*[http://www.wdl.org/en/item/6807/ Qur'an Carpet Page; al-Fatihah] from a 14th-century Mamluk Qur'an at the [[World Digital Library]]

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Circassian nobility]]
[[Category:Kipchaks]]
[[Category:Mamluks| ]]
[[Category:Mamluk Sultanate (Delhi)]]
[[Category:Military units and formations of the Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:Ottoman political people]]
[[Category:Islam and slavery]]
[[Category:History of Georgia (country)]]
[[Category:Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)]]
[[Category:Slave soldiers]]