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{{about|the Mongol emperor|other uses|Kublai (disambiguation)}}
{{Infobox royalty|name=Kublai Khan|title= 5th [[Khagan]] of the [[Mongol Empire]]<br/>(Nominally due to the [[division of the Mongol Empire|empire's division]])<br/> 1st Emperor of the [[Yuan dynasty]]<br/>[[Emperor of China]]
|image= YuanEmperorAlbumKhubilaiPortrait.jpg
|caption=Portrait of Kublai Khan drawn shortly after his death on February 18, 1294. The painting depicts Kublai prior to the onset of obesity from heavy eating and drinking. Kublai's white robes reflect his desired symbolic role as a religious Mongol shaman. Now Located in the [[National Palace Museum]], [[Taipei]], [[Taiwan]]; colors and ink on silk, 59.4 by 47 cm. 
|reign=5 May 1260&nbsp;– 18 February  1294
|coronation=5 May 1260
|full name={{lang-mn|ᠬᠦᠪᠢᠯᠠᠢ ᠬᠠᠭᠠᠨ}}<br/>{{zh|忽必烈}}<br/>Kublai Setsen Khan
|temple name=世祖 (Shìzǔ)
|posthumous name=聖德神功文武皇帝 ([[Emperor of China|Emperor]] Shèngdé Shéngōng Wénwǔ)
|era dates=中統 (Zhōngtǒng) 1260–1264<br/>至元 (Zhìyuán) 1264–1294
|predecessor=[[Möngke Khan]]
|successor=[[Temür Khan]]
|spouse=Tegulen Khatun<br>Qoruqchin Khatun<br>[[Chabi]] Khatun<br>Dorbajin Khatun<br>Hushijin Khatun<br>Bayujin Khatun<br>[[Nambui]] Khatun
|spouse-type=Consort
|royal house=[[Borjigin]]
|dynasty=[[Yuan dynasty|Yuan]]
|father=[[Tolui]]
|mother=[[Sorghaghtani Beki]]
|birth_date=23 September  1215
|death_date=18 February  1294 (aged 78)
|death_place=Dadu ([[Khanbaliq]])
|place of burial=[[Burkhan Khaldun]], [[Khentii Province]]
|religion = [[Tibetan Buddhism]]
}}

'''Kublai Khan''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|uː|b|l|aɪ|_|ˈ|k|ɑː|n}};<ref>[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/kublai%20khan "Kublai Khan"]. ''[[Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary]]''.</ref> {{lang-mn|Хубилай хаан|translit=Khubilai khaan}}, ''Xubilaĭ xaan''; {{lang-xng|ᠬᠤᠪᠢᠯᠠᠢ ᠬᠠᠭᠠᠨ}},<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://tmsdl.media.ritsumei.ac.jp/cgi-bin/library?a=q&r=1&hs=1&qtm=1&e=p-01000-00---off-0goldhis--00-1----0-10-0---0---0direct-10---4-------0-1l--11-en-50---20-about---00-3-1-00-0--4--0--0-0-11-10-0utfZz-8-00&t=1&q=%E1%A0%AC%E1%A0%A4%E1%A0%AA%E1%A0%A2%E1%A0%AF%E1%A0%A0%E1%A0%A2|title=Instances of 'ᠬᠤᠪᠢᠯᠠᠢ' in ''The Abbreviated Golden History'', and ''The Story of the Asragch''|last=|first=|date=|website=tmsdl.media.ritsumei.ac.jp|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=2017-03-17}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://mongoltoli.mn/history/h/420|title=''Kublai'', in the official Mongolian glossary of history|last=|first=|date=|website=mongoltoli.mn/history/h/420|language=Mongolian|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=2017-03-17}}</ref> ''{{transl|mn|Qubilai Qaγan}}'', "[[Khagan]] Qubilai"; September 23, 1215&nbsp;– February 18, 1294),<ref name="Rossabi13">{{harvnb|Rossabi|1988|p=13}}</ref><ref name="Rossabi227-228">{{harvnb|Rossabi|1988|pp=227–228}}</ref> born '''Kublai''' ({{lang-mn|Хубилай}}, ''Xubilaĭ''; {{lang-xng|''Qubilai''}}; also spelled '''Khubilai''') and also known by the [[temple name]] '''Shizu''' ('''Emperor Shizu of Yuan'''; {{zh|c=元世祖|p=Yuán Shìzǔ|w=Yüan Shih-tsu}}), was the fifth [[Khagan]] (Great Khan) of the [[Mongol Empire]] (''Ikh Mongol Uls''), reigning from 1260 to 1294 (although due to the [[division of the Mongol Empire|division of the empire]] this was a nominal position). He also founded the [[Yuan dynasty]] in [[China]] as a [[conquest dynasty]] in 1271, and ruled as the first Yuan emperor until his death in 1294.

Kublai was the fourth son of [[Tolui]] (his second son with [[Sorghaghtani Beki]]) and a grandson of [[Genghis Khan]]. He succeeded his older brother [[Möngke Khan|Möngke]] as Khagan in 1260, but had to defeat his younger brother [[Ariq Böke]] in the [[Toluid Civil War]] lasting until 1264. This episode marked the beginning of disunity in the empire.<ref>{{cite book |title=Encyclopædia Britannica |page=893}}</ref> Kublai's real power was limited to China and [[Mongolia]], though as Khagan he still had influence in the [[Ilkhanate]] and, to a significantly lesser degree, in the [[Golden Horde]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Robert |last=Marshall |title=Storm from the East: from Genghis Khan to Khubilai Khan |page=224}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Mark |last=Borthwick |title=Pacific Century |publisher=Westview Press |year=2007 |isbn=0-8133-4355-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=H. H. |last=Howorth |title=The History of the Mongols |volume=II |page=288}}</ref> If one counts the Mongol Empire at that time as a whole, his realm reached from the [[Pacific Ocean]] to the [[Black Sea]], from [[Siberia]] to what is now [[Afghanistan]]&nbsp;– one fifth of the world's inhabited land area.<ref name="Man2007">{{harvnb|Man|2007}}</ref>

In 1271, Kublai established the Yuan dynasty, which ruled over present-day Mongolia, China, [[Korea]], and some adjacent areas, and assumed the role of [[Emperor of China]]. By 1279, the [[Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty]] was completed and Kublai became the first non-native emperor to conquer all of China.

==Early years==
Kublai was the fourth son of [[Tolui]], and his second son with [[Sorghaghtani Beki]]. As his grandfather [[Genghis Khan]] advised, Sorghaghtani chose a [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] [[Tangut people|Tangut]] woman as her son's nurse, whom Kublai later honored highly. On his way home after the [[Mongol conquest of Khwarezmia]], Genghis Khan performed a ceremony on his grandsons Möngke and Kublai after their first hunt in 1224 near the [[Ili River]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Jack |last=Weatherford |title=The Secret History of the Mongol Queens |page=135}}</ref> Kublai was nine years old and with his eldest brother killed a rabbit and an antelope. His grandfather smeared fat from killed animals onto Kublai's middle finger in accordance with a Mongol tradition.

After the [[Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty]], in 1236, [[Ögedei Khan|Ögedei]] gave [[Hebei]] (attached with 80,000 households) to the family of Tolui, who died in 1232. Kublai received an estate of his own, which included 10,000 households. Because he was inexperienced, Kublai allowed local officials free rein. Corruption amongst his officials and aggressive taxation caused large numbers of Chinese peasants to flee, which led to a decline in tax revenues. Kublai quickly came to his [[appanage]] in Hebei and ordered reforms. Sorghaghtani sent new officials to help him and tax laws were revised. Thanks to those efforts, many of the people who fled returned.

The most prominent, and arguably most influential, component of Kublai Khan's early life was his study and strong attraction to contemporary [[Chinese culture]]. Kublai invited Haiyun, the leading Buddhist monk in North China, to his [[Orda (organization)|ordo]] in Mongolia. When he met Haiyun in Karakorum in 1242, Kublai asked him about the philosophy of Buddhism. Haiyun named Kublai's son, who was born in 1243, [[Zhenjin]] (Chinese: ''True Gold'').<ref name="Man2007p37">{{harvnb|Man|2007|p=37}}</ref> Haiyun also introduced Kublai to the formerly [[Taoism|Daoist]] and now Buddhist monk, Liu Bingzhong. Liu was a painter, calligrapher, poet, and mathematician, and he became Kublai's advisor when Haiyun returned to his temple in modern [[Beijing]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Stephen G. |last=Haw |title=Marco Polo's China |page=33}}</ref> Kublai soon added the [[Shanxi]] scholar Zhao Bi to his entourage. Kublai employed people of other nationalities as well, for he was keen to balance local and imperial interests, Mongol and [[Turkic peoples|Turk]].

==Victory in North China==
[[File:Qubilai Setsen Khaan.JPG|thumb|Portrait of young Kublai by [[Araniko|Anige]], a Nepali artist in Kublai's court]]
In 1251, Kublai's eldest brother [[Möngke Khan|Möngke]] became Khan of the Mongol Empire, and Khwarizmian [[Mahmud Yalavach]] and Kublai were sent to China. Kublai received the [[viceroy]]alty over North China and moved his ordo to central [[Inner Mongolia]]. During his years as viceroy, Kublai managed his territory well, boosted the agricultural output of [[Henan]], and increased social welfare spendings after receiving [[Xi'an]]. These acts received great acclaim from the Chinese warlords and were essential to the building of the Yuan Dynasty. In 1252, Kublai criticized Mahmud Yalavach, who was never highly valued by his Chinese associates, over his cavalier execution of suspects during a judicial review, and Zhao Bi attacked him for his presumptuous attitude toward the throne. Möngke dismissed Mahmud Yalavach, which met with resistance from Chinese Confucian-trained officials.<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Franke |editor1-first=Herbert |editor2-last=Twitchett |editor2-first=Denis C. |title=The Cambridge History of China: Volume 6, Alien Regimes and Border States, 907–1368 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iN9Tdfdap5MC |year=1994 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-24331-5 |page=381}}</ref>

In 1253, Kublai was ordered to attack [[Yunnan]] and he asked the [[Dali Kingdom]] to submit. The ruling Gao family resisted and killed Mongol [[diplomacy|envoys]]. The Mongols divided their forces into three. One wing rode eastward into the [[Sichuan]] basin. The second column under Subutai's son Uryankhadai took a difficult route into the mountains of western Sichuan.<ref name="Man2007p79">{{harvnb|Man|2007|p=79}}</ref> Kublai went south over the grasslands and met up with the first column. While Uryankhadai travelled along the lakeside from the north, Kublai took the capital city of [[Dali City|Dali]] and spared the residents despite the slaying of his ambassadors. The Dali King Duan Xingzhi ([[w:zh:段興智|段興智]]) himself defected to the Mongols, who used his troops to conquer the rest of Yunnan. Duan Xingzhi, the last king of Dali, was appointed by [[Möngke Khan]] as the first ''[[tusi]]'' or local ruler; Duan accepted the stationing of a pacification commissioner there.<ref name="Atwood613">{{harvnb|Atwood|2004|p=613}}</ref> After Kublai's departure, unrest broke out among certain factions. In 1255 and 1256, Duan Xingzhi was presented at court, where he offered [[Möngke Khan]] maps of Yunnan and counsels about the vanquishing of the tribes who had not yet surrendered. Duan then led a considerable army to serve as guides and vanguards for the Mongolian army. By the end of 1256, Uryankhadai had completely pacified [[Yunnan]].<ref name="JSS_077_1c_DuYutingChenLufan">{{cite journal 
|author=  
| last1 =  Du Yuting
 | first1 =
 | authorlink1 =
 | last2 = Chen Lufan
 | first2 =
|year= 1989
|title=  Did Kublai Khan's Conquest of the Dali Kingdom Give Rise to the Mass Migration of the Thai People to the South?	
|journal= [[Journal of the Siam Society]] 
|format= free
|volume= JSS Vol. 77.1c 
|issue= digital |page= image |pages= |nopp= <!-- hides automatic 'p' or 'pp'.   -->
|publisher= Siam Heritage Trust |doi= 
|url= http://www.siamese-heritage.org/jsspdf/1981/JSS_077_1c_DuYutingChenLufan_KublaiKhanConquestAndThaiMigration.pdf
|accessdate= March 17, 2013
|quote= 
}}</ref>

Kublai was attracted by the abilities of [[Tibetan Buddhism|Tibetan monks]] as healers. In 1253 he made [[Drogön Chögyal Phagpa]] of the [[Sakya]] school, a member of his entourage. Phagpa bestowed on Kublai and his wife, [[Chabi]] (Chabui), an [[Empowerment (Vajrayana)|empowerment]] (initiation ritual). Kublai appointed Lian Xixian of the [[Kingdom of Qocho]] (1231–1280) the head of his pacification commission in 1254. Some officials, who were jealous of Kublai's success, said that he was getting above himself and dreaming of having his own empire by competing with Möngke's capital [[Karakorum]]. Möngke Khan sent two tax inspectors, Alamdar (Ariq Böke's close friend and governor in North China) and Liu Taiping, to audit Kublai's officials in 1257. They found fault, listed 142 breaches of regulations, accused Chinese officials and executed some of them, and Kublai's new pacification commission was abolished.<ref name="Weatherford2004p186">{{harvnb|Weatherford|2004|p=186}}</ref> Kublai sent a two-man embassy with his wives and then appealed in person to Möngke, who publicly forgave his younger brother and reconciled with him.

The Daoists had obtained their wealth and status by seizing [[Buddhist temple]]s. Möngke repeatedly demanded that the Daoists cease their denigration of Buddhism and ordered Kublai to end the clerical strife between the Taoists and Buddhists in his territory.<ref>{{cite book |author=Gazangjia |title=Tibetan Religions |page=115}}</ref> Kublai called a conference of Daoist and Buddhist leaders in early 1258. At the conference, the Taoist claim was officially refuted, and Kublai forcibly converted 237 Daoist temples to Buddhism and destroyed all copies of the Daoist texts.<ref>{{cite book |author= Sun Kokuan |title=Yu chi and Southern Taoism during the Yuan period, in China under Mongol rule |pages=212–253}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Encyclopædia Britannica |page=502}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Bagchi |first=Prabodh Chandra |title=India and China |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MB4CHPi7dycC |year=2011 |publisher=Anthem Press |isbn=978-93-80601-17-5 |page=118}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Nag |first=Kalidas |title=Greater India |page=216}}</ref> Kublai Khan and the [[Yuan dynasty]] clearly favored Buddhism, while his counterparts in the [[Chagatai Khanate]], the [[Golden Horde]], and the [[Ilkhanate]] later converted to [[Islam]] at various times in history – [[Berke]] of the [[Golden Horde]] being the only Muslim during Kublai's era (his successor did not convert to Islam).

In 1258, Möngke put Kublai in command of the Eastern Army and summoned him to assist with an attack on Sichuan. As he was suffering from [[gout]], Kublai was allowed to stay home, but he moved to assist Möngke anyway. Before Kublai arrived in 1259, word reached him that Möngke had died. Kublai decided to keep the death of his brother secret and continued the attack on [[Wuhan]], near the [[Yangtze]]. While Kublai's force besieged [[Wuchang District|Wuchang]], Uryankhadai joined him.{{Citation needed|date=April 2012}} The [[Song dynasty|Song]] minister [[Jia Sidao]] secretly approached Kublai to propose terms. He offered an annual tribute of 200,000 [[tael]]s of silver and 200,000 [[Bolt (fabric)|bolts]] of silk, in exchange for Mongol agreement to the Yangtze as the frontier between the states.<ref>{{cite book |last=Mah |first=Adeline Yen |title=China: Land of Dragons and Emperors |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nEcp5cFeVb0C |year=2008 |publisher=Random House Children's Books |isbn=978-0-375-89099-4 |page=129}}</ref> Kublai declined at first but later reached a peace agreement with Jia Sidao.

==Enthronement and civil war==
{{main article|Toluid Civil War}}
Kublai received a message from his wife that his younger brother Ariq Böke had been raising troops, so he returned north to the Mongolian plains.<ref name="Man2007p102">{{harvnb|Man|2007|p=102}}</ref> Before he reached Mongolia, he learned that Ariq Böke had held a ''[[kurultai]]'' (Mongol great council) at the capital [[Karakorum]], which had named him Great Khan with the support of most of Genghis Khan's descendants. Kublai and the fourth brother, the Il-Khan [[Hulagu Khan|Hulagu]], opposed this. Kublai's Chinese staff encouraged Kublai to ascend the throne, and almost all the senior princes in North China and [[Manchuria]] supported his candidacy.<ref name="Atwood458">{{harvnb|Atwood|2004|p=458}}</ref> Upon returning to his own territories, Kublai summoned his own kurultai. Few members of the royal family supported Kublai's claims to the title, though the small number of attendees included representatives of all the [[Borjigin]] lines except that of [[Jochi]].  This kurultai proclaimed Kublai Great Khan, on April 15, 1260, despite Ariq Böke's apparently legal claim.

[[File:Kublai Khan and His Empress Enthroned.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Kublai Khan was chosen by his many supporters to become the next ''Great Khan'' at the Grand [[Kurultai]] in the year 1260. 
Kublai Khan and His Empress Enthroned, from a ''Jami al-Twarikh'' (or ''Chingiznama''). Mughal dynasty, Reign of Akbar, 1596. Mughal Court. Opaque watercolor, ink and gold on paper. India. Freer Gallery of Art. F1954.31 [http://www.asia.si.edu/collections/edan/object.php?q=fsg_F1954.31&bcrumb=true]
]]

This led to warfare between Kublai and Ariq Böke, which resulted in the destruction of the Mongolian capital at Karakorum. In [[Shaanxi]] and Sichuan, Möngke's army supported Ariq Böke. Kublai dispatched Lian Xixian to Shaanxi and Sichuan, where they executed Ariq Böke's civil administrator Liu Taiping and won over several wavering generals.<ref>{{cite book |first=Marvin C |last=Whiting |title=Imperial Chinese Military History: 8000 BC&nbsp;– 1912 AD |page=394}}</ref> To secure the southern front, Kublai attempted a diplomatic resolution and sent envoys to [[Hangzhou]], but Jia broke his promise and arrested them.<ref name="Man2007p109">{{harvnb|Man|2007|p=109}}</ref> Kublai sent Abishqa as new khan to the [[Chagatai Khanate]]. Ariq Böke captured Abishqa, two other princes, and 100 men, and he had his own man, [[Alghu]], crowned khan of [[Chagatai Khan|Chagatai]]'s territory. In the first armed clash between Ariq Böke and Kublai, Ariq Böke lost and his commander Alamdar was killed at the battle. In revenge, Ariq Böke had Abishqa executed. Kublai cut off supplies of food to Karakorum with the support of his cousin [[Kadan]], son of [[Ögedei Khan]]. Karakorum quickly fell to Kublai's large army, but following Kublai's departure it was temporarily re-taken by Ariq Böke in 1261. Yizhou governor Li Tan revolted against Mongol rule in February 1262, and Kublai ordered his Chancellor [[Shi Tianze]] and Shi Shu to attack Li Tan. The two armies crushed Li Tan's revolt in just a few months and Li Tan was executed. These armies also executed [[Wang Wentong]], Li Tan's father-in-law, who had been appointed the Chief Administrator of the [[Zhongshu Sheng|Central Secretariat]] (Zhongshu Sheng) early in Kublai's reign and became one of Kublai's most trusted Han Chinese officials. The incident instilled in Kublai a distrust of ethnic Hans. After becoming emperor, Kublai banned granting the titles of and tithes to Han Chinese warlords.{{Citation needed|date=April 2012}}

Chagatayid Khan Alghu, who had been appointed by Ariq Böke, declared his allegiance to Kublai and defeated a punitive expedition sent by Ariq Böke in 1262. The Ilkhan Hulagu also sided with Kublai and criticized Ariq Böke. Ariq Böke surrendered to Kublai at Xanadu on August 21, 1264. The rulers of the western khanates acknowledged Kublai's victory and rule in Mongolia.<ref name="Weatherford2004p120">{{harvnb|Weatherford|2004|p=120}}</ref> When Kublai summoned them to a new ''kurultai'', Alghu Khan demanded recognition of his illegal position from Kublai in return. Despite tensions between them, both Hulagu and [[Berke]], khan of the [[Golden Horde]], at first accepted Kublai's invitation.<ref>{{citation |author=Салих Закиров |title=Дипломатические отношения Золотой орды с Египтом}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Rashid |last=al-Din |title=Universal History}}</ref> However, they soon declined to attend the ''kurultai''. Kublai pardoned Ariq Böke, although he executed Ariq Böke's chief supporters.

==Reign==

===Great Khan of the Mongols===
{{Campaignbox Mongol invasions}}

The mysterious deaths of three [[Descent from Genghis Khan#Asian dynasties|Jochid]] princes in Hulagu's service, the [[Siege of Baghdad (1258)]], and unequal distribution of war spoils strained the Ilkhanate's relations with the Golden Horde. In 1262, Hulagu's complete purge of the Jochid troops and support for Kublai in his conflict with Ariq Böke brought open war with the Golden Horde. Kublai reinforced Hulagu with 30,000 young Mongols in order to stabilize the political crises in the western regions of the Mongol Empire.<ref>Rashid al-Din, ibid</ref> When Hulagu died on February 8, 1264, Berke marched to cross near [[Tbilisi]] to conquer the Ilkhanate but died on the way. Within a few months of these deaths, Alghu Khan of the Chagatai Khanate also died. In the new official version of his family's history, Kublai refused to write Berke's name as the khan of the Golden Horde because of Berke's support for Ariq Böke and wars with Hulagu; however, Jochi's family was fully recognized as legitimate family members.<ref>Howorth, H. H. ''History of the Mongols'' section: "Berke khan"</ref>

Kublai Khan named [[Abaqa Khan|Abaqa]] as the new Ilkhan (obedient khan) and nominated Batu's grandson [[Mentemu]] for the throne of [[Sarai (city)|Sarai]], the capital of the Golden Horde.<ref>H. H. Howorth ''History of the Mongols from the 9th to the 19th Century: Part 2. The So-Called Tartars of Russia and Central Asia''. Division 1</ref><ref>Otsahi Matsuwo ''Khubilai Kan''</ref> The Kublaids in the east retained [[suzerainty]] over the Ilkhans until the end of their regime.<ref name="Atwood458"/><ref>{{cite book |last=Prawdin |first=Michael |title=Mongol Empire and its legacy |page=302}}</ref> Kublai also sent his protege [[Ghiyas-ud-din Baraq]] to overthrow the court of the [[Oirats|Oirat]] [[Orghana]], the empress of the [[Chagatai Khanate]], who put her young son [[Mubarak Shah]] on the throne in 1265, without Kublai's permission after her husband's death.

Prince [[Kaidu]] of the [[House of Ögedei]] declined to personally attend the court of Kublai. Kublai instigated Baraq to attack Kaidu. Baraq began to expand his realm northward; he seized power in 1266 and fought Kaidu and the Golden Horde. He also pushed out Great Khan's overseer from the [[Tarim Basin]]. When Kaidu and Mentemu together defeated Kublai, Baraq joined an alliance with the House of Ögedei and the Golden Horde against Kublai in the east and Abagha in the west. Meanwhile, Mentemu avoided any direct military expedition against Kublai's realm. The Golden Horde promised Kublai their assistance to defeat Kaidu whom Mentemu called the rebel.<ref>Biran, Michael. ''Qaidu and the Rise of the Independent Mongol State In Central Asia'', p. 63</ref> This was apparently due to the conflict between Kaidu and Mentemu over the agreement they made at the Talas kurultai. The armies of Mongol Persia defeated Baraq's invading forces in 1269. When Baraq died the next year, Kaidu took control of the Chagatai Khanate and recovered his alliance with Mentemu.

Meanwhile, Kublai tried to stabilize his control over the [[Korean Peninsula]] by mobilizing another Mongol invasion after he enthroned [[Wonjong of Goryeo]] (r. 1260–1274) in 1259 on [[Ganghwado]]. Kublai also forced two rulers of the Golden Horde and the Ilkhanate to call a truce with each other in 1270 despite the Golden Horde's interests in the Middle East and the [[Caucasus]].<ref name="Saunders130-132">{{harvnb|Saunders|2001|pp=130–132}}</ref> Kublai called two Iraqi siege engineers from the Ilkhanate in order to destroy the fortresses of Song China. After [[Battle of Xiangyang|the fall of Xiangyang]] in 1273, Kublai's commanders, [[Aju]] and Liu Zheng, proposed a final campaign against the Song Dynasty, and Kublai made [[Bayan of the Baarin]] the supreme commander.<ref name="Grousset294">{{harvnb|Grousset|1970|p=294}}</ref> Kublai ordered Möngke Temür to revise the second census of the Golden Horde to provide resources and men for his conquest of China.<ref>{{cite book |last=Vernadsky |first=G. V. |title=The Mongols and Russia |page=155}}</ref> The census took place in all parts of the Golden Horde, including [[Smolensk]] and [[Vitebsk]] in 1274–75. The Khans also sent [[Nogai Khan]] to the [[Balkans]] to strengthen Mongol influence there.<ref>Q. Pachymeres, Bk 5, ch.4 (Bonn ed. 1,344)</ref>

Kublai renamed the Mongol regime in China Dai Yuan in 1271, and sought to sinicize his image as Emperor of China in order to win control of millions of Chinese people. When he moved his headquarters to [[Khanbaliq]], also called Dadu, at modern-day Beijing, there was an uprising in the old capital Karakorum that he barely contained. Kublai's actions were condemned by traditionalists and his critics still accused him of being too closely tied to Chinese culture. They sent a message to him: "The old customs of our Empire are not those of the Chinese laws&nbsp;... What will happen to the old customs?"<ref>Rashid al-Din</ref><ref name="Man2007p74">{{harvnb|Man|2007|p=74}}</ref> Kaidu attracted the other elites of Mongol Khanates, declaring himself to be a legitimate heir to the throne instead of Kublai, who had turned away from the ways of Genghis Khan.<ref name="The History of the Yuan Dynasty">The History of the Yuan Dynasty</ref><ref>Sh.Tseyen-Oidov&nbsp;– Ibid, p. 64</ref> Defections from Kublai's Dynasty swelled the Ögedeids' forces.

[[File:Liu-Kuan-Tao-Jagd.JPG|thumb|right|220px|Painting of Kublai Khan on a hunting expedition, by Chinese court artist Liu Guandao, c. 1280.]]

The Song imperial family surrendered to the Yuan in 1276, making the Mongols the first non-Chinese peoples to conquer all of China. Three years later, [[Battle of Yamen|Yuan marines crushed the last of the Song loyalists]]. The Song Empress Dowager and her grandson, [[Emperor Gong of Song]], were then settled in [[Khanbaliq]] where they were given tax-free property, and Kublai's wife Chabi took a personal interest in their well-being. However, Kublai later had Emperor Gong sent away to become a monk to [[Zhangye]].

Kublai succeeded in building a powerful empire, created an academy, offices, trade ports and canals and sponsored science and the arts. The record of the Mongols lists 20,166 public schools created during Kublai's reign.<ref name="The History of the Yuan Dynasty"/> Having achieved real or nominal dominion over much of Eurasia, and having successfully conquered China, Kublai was in a position to look beyond China.<ref name="Man2007p207">{{harvnb|Man|2007|p=207}}</ref> However, Kublai's costly invasions of [[Mongol invasions of Vietnam#First Mongol invasion in 1258|Vietnam (1258)]],  [[Sakhalin]] (1264), [[first Mongol invasion of Burma|Burma (1277)]], [[Mongol invasions of Vietnam#Champa|Champa (1282)]], and [[Mongol invasions of Vietnam#Second Mongol invasion in 1285|Vietnam again (1285)]] secured only the [[vassal]] status of those countries. [[Mongol invasions of Japan]] (1274 and 1280), the [[Mongol invasions of Vietnam#Third.2FFinal Mongol invasion.2C 1287-88|third invasion of Vietnam (1287–8)]], and the [[Mongol invasion of Java|invasion of Java]] (1293) failed.

At the same time, Kublai's nephew Ilkhan Abagha tried to form [[Franco-Mongol alliance|a grand alliance]] of the Mongols and the Western European powers to defeat the [[Mamluk]]s in Syria and North Africa that constantly invaded the Mongol dominions. Abagha and Kublai focused mostly on foreign alliances, and opened trade routes. Khagan Kublai dined with a large court every day, and met with many ambassadors and foreign merchants.

Kublai's son Nomukhan and his generals occupied [[Almaliq, Xinjiang|Almaliq]] from 1266 to 1276. In 1277, a group of Genghisid princes under Möngke's son Shiregi rebelled, kidnapped Kublai's two sons and his general [[Antong]] and handed them over to Kaidu and Möngke Temür. The latter was still allied with Kaidu who fashioned an alliance with him in 1269, although Möngke Temür had promised Kublai his military support to protect Kublai from the Ögedeids.<ref name="The History of the Yuan Dynasty"/> Kublai's armies suppressed the rebellion and strengthened the Yuan garrisons in Mongolia and the [[Ili River]] basin. However, Kaidu took control over Almaliq.
[[File:ArghunLetterToPhilippeLeBelExtract1289.jpg|thumb|Extract of the letter of [[Arghun]] to [[Philip IV of France]], in the [[Mongolian script]], dated 1289. French National Archives.]]

In 1279–80, Kublai decreed death for those who performed slaughtering of cattle according to the legal codes of Islam ([[dhabihah]]) or [[Judaism]] ([[kashrut]]), which offended Mongolian custom.<ref name="Grousset297">{{harvnb|Grousset|1970|p=297}}</ref> When [[Tekuder]] seized the throne of the Ilkhanate in 1282, attempting to make peace with the Mamluks, Abaqa's old Mongols under prince [[Arghun]] appealed to Kublai. After the execution of [[Ahmad Fanakati]], Kublai confirmed Arghun's coronation and awarded his commander in chief [[Buqa]] the title of [[chancellor]].{{Citation needed|date=April 2012}}

Kublai's niece, Kelmish, who married a [[Khongirad]] general of the Golden Horde, was powerful enough to have Kublai's sons Nomuqan and Kokhchu returned. Three leaders of the Jochids, [[Tode Mongke]], [[Köchü]], and Nogai, agreed to release two princes.<ref>{{cite book |last=Allsen |first=Thomas T. |title=The Princes of the Left Hand: An Introduction to the History of the Rulus of Orda in the Thirteenth and Early Fourteenth Centuries |page=21}}</ref> The court of the Golden Horde returned the princes as a peace overture to the Yuan Dynasty in 1282 and induced Kaidu to release Kublai's general. Konchi, khan of [[Wings of the Golden Horde|the White Horde]], established friendly relations with the Yuan and the Ilkhanate, and as a reward received luxury gifts and grain from Kublai.<ref>Eurasia ''Archivum Eurasiae medii aevi'', p. 21</ref> Despite political disagreement between contending branches of the family over the office of Khagan, the economic and commercial system continued.<ref name="Weatherford2004p195">{{harvnb|Weatherford|2004|p=195}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Vernadsky |first=G. V. |title=The Mongols and Russia |pages=344–366}}</ref><ref>Henryk Samsonowicz, Maria Bogucka ''A Republic of Nobles'', p. 179</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Vernadsky |first=G. V. |title=A History of Russia |edition=New, Revised}}</ref>

===Emperor of the Yuan dynasty===
[[File:Yuan Dynasty 1294.png|thumb|righy|220px|The Yuan Dynasty of China, c. 1294]]
Kublai Khan considered China as his main base, realizing within a decade of his enthronement as Great Khan that he needed to concentrate on governing there.<ref name="Rossabi115">{{harvnb|Rossabi|1988|p=115}}</ref> From the beginning of his reign, he adopted Chinese political and cultural models and worked to minimize the influences of regional lords, who had held immense power before and during the Song Dynasty. Kublai heavily relied on his Chinese advisers until about 1276. He had many Han Chinese advisers, such as [[Liu Bingzhong]] and [[Xu Heng]], and employed many Buddhist Uyghurs, some of whom were resident commissioners running Chinese districts.<ref name="Man2007p231">{{harvnb|Man|2007|p=231}}</ref>

Kublai also appointed the Sakya lama Drogön Chögyal Phagpa ("the Phags pa Lama") his [[Imperial Preceptor]], giving him power over all the empire's [[bhikkhu|Buddhist monks]]. In 1270, after the Phags pa Lama created the [['Phags-pa script]], he was promoted to imperial preceptor. Kublai established the Supreme Control Commission under the Phags pa Lama to administer affairs of Tibetan and Chinese monks. During Phagspa's absence in Tibet, the [[Tibetan people|Tibetan]] monk Sangha rose to high office and had the office renamed the Commission for Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs.<ref>{{cite book |last=Phillips |first=J. R. S. |title=The Medieval Expansion of Europe |p=122}}</ref><ref name="Grousset304">{{harvnb|Grousset|1970|p=304}}</ref> In 1286, Sangha became the dynasty's chief fiscal officer. However, their{{whose?|The Tibetans? Sangha's? The dynasty's?|date=June 2014}} [[Political corruption|corruption]] later embittered Kublai, and he later relied wholly on younger Mongol aristocrats. Antong of the [[Jalairs]] and Bayan of the Baarin served as grand councillors from 1265, and Oz-temur of the Arulad headed the [[censorate]]. Borokhula's descendant, Ochicher, headed a [[kheshig]] (Mongolian imperial guard) and the palace provision commission.

In the eighth year of Zhiyuan (1271), Kublai officially created the Yuan dynasty and proclaimed the capital as Dadu ({{zh|c=大都|w=Ta-tu}}, lit. "Great Capital", known as [[Khanbaliq]] or Daidu to the Mongols, at modern-day Beijing) the following year. His summer capital was in [[Shangdu]] ({{zh|c=上都}}, "Upper Capital", also called Xanadu, near what today is [[Dolon Nor]]). To unify China,<ref name="Rossabi76">{{harvnb|Rossabi|1988|p=76}}</ref> Kublai began a massive offensive against the remnants of the [[Song dynasty#Southern Song, 1127–1279|Southern Song]] in 1274 and finally destroyed the Song in 1279, unifying the country at last.

[[File:Theatre actors, Yuan Dynasty.jpg|left|thumb|[[Chinese opera]] flourished during Yuan China.]]

Most of the Yuan domains were administered as provinces, also translated as the "Branch Secretariat", each with a governor and vice-governor.<ref>[http://www.tibet.com/Status/mongol.html "The Mongols and Tibet - A historical assessment of relations between the Mongol Empire and Tibet"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090429073053/http://www.tibet.com/Status/mongol.html |date=April 29, 2009 }}</ref> This included [[China proper]], [[Manchuria]], [[Mongolia]], and a special Zhendong branch Secretariat that extended into the Korean Peninsula.<ref name="Rossabi247">{{harvnb|Rossabi|1988|p=247}}</ref><ref>[http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Yuan/yuan-map.html The Branch Secretariats of the Yuan Empire]</ref> The Central Region ({{zh|c=腹裏}}) was separate from the rest, consisting of much of present-day [[North China]]. It was considered the most important region of the dynasty and was directly governed by the [[Zhongshu Sheng]] at Dadu. Tibet was governed by another top-level administrative department called the [[Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs]].

Kublai promoted economic growth by rebuilding the [[Grand Canal (China)|Grand Canal]], repairing public buildings, and extending highways. However, his domestic policy included some aspects of the old Mongol living traditions, and as his reign continued, these traditions would clash increasingly frequently with traditional Chinese economic and social culture. Kublai decreed that partner merchants of the Mongols should be subject to taxes in 1263 and set up the Office of Market Taxes to supervise them in 1268. After the Mongol conquest of the Song, the merchants expanded their operations to the [[South China Sea]] and the [[Indian Ocean]]. In 1286, maritime trade was put under the Office of Market Taxes. The main source of revenue of the government was the monopoly of salt production.<ref>Cecilia Lee-fang Chien ''Salt and state'', p. 25</ref>

The Mongol administration had issued paper currencies from 1227 on.<ref name="Weatherford2004p176">{{harvnb|Weatherford|2004|p=176}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Martinez |first=A. P. |title=The use of Mint-output data in Historical research on the Western appanages |pages=87–100}}</ref> In August 1260, Kublai created the first unified paper currency called [[Chao (currency)|Chao]]; bills were circulated throughout the Yuan domain with no expiration date. To guard against devaluation, the currency was convertible with silver and gold, and the government accepted tax payments in paper currency. In 1273, Kublai issued a new series of state sponsored bills to finance his conquest of the Song, although eventually a lack of fiscal discipline and inflation turned this move into an economic disaster. It was required to pay only in the form of paper money. To ensure its use, Kublai's government confiscated gold and silver from private citizens and foreign merchants, but traders received government-issued notes in exchange. Kublai Khan is considered to be the first [[fiat money]] maker. The paper bills made collecting taxes and administering the empire much easier and reduced the cost of transporting coins.<ref name="Weatherford1997p127">{{harvnb|Weatherford|1997|p=127}}</ref> In 1287, Kublai's minister Sangha created a new currency, Zhiyuan Chao, to deal with a budget shortfall.<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=de Rachewiltz |editor1-first=Igor |editor2-last=Chan |editor2-first=Hok-Lam |editor3-last=Ch'i-ch'ing |editor3-first=Hsiao |display-editors = 3 |editor4-last=Geier |editor4-first=Peter W. |title=In the Service of the Khan: Eminent Personalities of the Early Mongol-Yüan Period |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kG45gi7E3hsC |year=1993 |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |isbn=978-3-447-03339-8 |page=562}}</ref> It was non-convertible and denominated in [[copper]] cash. Later [[Gaykhatu]] of the Ilkhanate attempted to adopt the system in [[Iran]] and the Middle East, which was a complete failure, and shortly afterwards he was assassinated.

[[w:zh:桑哥|桑哥]] Sangha was a Tibetan.<ref>http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp110_wuzong_emperor.pdf p. 15.</ref> A rich merchant from the [[Madurai Sultanate]], Abu Ali (in Chinese, 孛哈里 ''Bèihālǐ'' or 布哈爾 ''Bùhār''), was associated closely with its royal family. After falling out with them, he moved to Yuan China and received a [[Koreans|Korean woman]] as his wife and a job from the Mongol Emperor, the woman was formerly Sangha's wife and her father held the title of [[w:ko:채송년|채송년]] ''Chaesongnyeon'' during the reign of [[Chungnyeol of Goryeo]] according to the ''[[Dongguk Tonggam]]'', ''[[Goryeosa]]'' and [[w:zh:留夢炎|Liu Mengyan]]'s ''Zhōng'ānjí'' (''中俺集'').<ref name="Schottenhammer2008">{{cite book|author=Angela Schottenhammer|title=The East Asian Mediterranean: Maritime Crossroads of Culture, Commerce and Human Migration|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GSA_AaRdgioC&pg=PA138#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=2008|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=978-3-447-05809-4|pages=138–}}</ref><ref>SEN, TANSEN. 2006. "The Yuan Khanate and India: Cross-cultural Diplomacy in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries". Asia Major 19 (1/2). Academia Sinica: [http://www2.ihp.sinica.edu.tw/file/1445ZBWAkRi.pdf 317.] {{jstor|41649921}}</ref>

Kublai encouraged Asian arts and demonstrated religious tolerance. Despite his anti-Daoist edicts, Kublai respected the Daoist master and appointed Zhang Liushan as the patriarch of the Daoist ''Xuánjiào'' (玄教, "Mysterious Order").<ref>{{cite book |last=Lagerwey |first=John |title=Religion and Chinese society |page=xxi}}</ref> Under Zhang's advice, Daoist temples were put under the Academy of Scholarly Worthies. Several Europeans visited the empire, notably [[Marco Polo]] in the 1270s, who may have seen the summer capital Shangdu.

During the Southern Song, the descendant of [[Confucius]] at [[Qufu]], [[Duke Yansheng]] Kong Duanyou fled south with the Song Emperor to [[Quzhou]], while the newly established [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)]] in the north appointed Kong Duanyou's brother Kong Duancao who remained in Qufu as Duke Yansheng. From that time up until the Yuan dynasty, there were two Duke Yanshengs, once in the north in Qufu and the other in the south at Quzhou. An invitation to come back to Qufu was extended to the southern Duke Yansheng Kong Zhu by the Yuan dynasty Emperor Kublai Khan. The title was taken away from the southern branch after Kong Zhu rejected the invitation, so the northern branch of the family kept the title of Duke Yansheng.<ref>http://www.npm.gov.tw/hotnews/9910seminar/download/all/B10.pdf p. 14.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://aas2.asian-studies.org/absts/1995abst/china/csess45.htm|title=AAS Abstracts: China Session 45|first=B. Paul|last=Banning|publisher=}}</ref><ref>https://www.asian-studies.org/absts/1995abst/china/csess45.htm {{cite web|url=http://archive. |title=Archived copy |accessdate=March 19, 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130712160429/http://archive |archivedate=July 12, 2013 }} is/hOXhs</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://academics.hamilton.edu/asian_studies/home/CultTemp/sitePages/temple.html|title=Cult of Confucius|first=Thomas A.|last=Wilson|publisher=}}</ref><ref>[http://en.chinatefl.com/Platform/cityfeature_241_5_48.html Quzhou City Guides - China TEFL Network<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2006-09/29/content_699183.htm|title=Nation observes Confucius anniversary|publisher=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/2006/Sep/182656.htm|title=Confucius Anniversary Celebrated   -- china.org.cn|publisher=}}</ref><ref name="JansenKlein2014">{{cite book|author1=Thomas Jansen|author2=Thoralf Klein|author3=Christian Meyer|title=Globalization and the Making of Religious Modernity in China: Transnational Religions, Local Agents, and the Study of Religion, 1800-Present|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GNlXAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA188#v=onepage&q&f=false|date=21 March 2014|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-27151-7|pages=187–188}}</ref> The southern branch still remained in Quzhou where they lived to this day. Confucius's descendants in Quzhou alone number 30,000.<ref>{{cite news|title=Nation observes Confucius anniversary|url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2006-09/29/content_699183.htm|agency=China Daily|date=2006-09-29 <!-- 07:31 --> }}</ref>

====Scientific developments and relations with minorities====
[[File:Trebuchet2.png|thumb|The "[[Muslim]] [[trebuchet]]" ([[Hui-Hui Pao]]) used to breach the walls of [[Fancheng District|Fancheng]] and [[Xiangzhou District, Xiangyang|Xiangyang]].]]

Thirty Muslims served as high officials in the court of Kublai Khan. Eight of the dynasty's twelve administrative districts had Muslim governors appointed by Kublai Khan.<ref name="muslimheritage.com">http://www.muslimheritage.com/uploads/1001_Years_of_Missing_Martial_Arts%20.pdf</ref> Among the Muslim governors was [[Sayyid Ajjal Shams al-Din Omar]], who became administrator of [[Yunnan]]. He was a well learned man in the [[Confucianism|Confucian]] and Daoist traditions and is believed to have propagated [[Islam in China]]. Other administrators were [[Nasr al-Din (Yunnan)]] and [[Mahmud Yalavach]] (mayor of the Yuan capitol).

Kublai Khan patronized Muslim scholars and scientists, and Muslim astronomers contributed to the construction of the observatory in [[Shaanxi]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/198504/muslims.in.china-the.history.htm|title=Saudi Aramco World : Muslims in China: The History|publisher=}}</ref> Astronomers such as [[Jamal ad-Din (astronomer)|Jamal ad-Din]] introduced 7 new instruments and concepts that allowed the correction of the Chinese calendar.

Muslim cartographers made accurate maps of all the nations along the [[Silk Road]] and greatly influenced the knowledge of [[Yuan dynasty]] rulers and merchants.

Muslim physicians organized hospitals and had their own institutes of Medicine in [[Beijing]] and [[Shangdu]]. In Beijing was the renown ''Guang Hui Si'' "Department of extensive mercy", where [[Hui people|Hui]] medicine and surgery were taught. [[Avicenna]]'s works were also published in China during that period.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hitchens |first1=Marilynn Giroux |last2=Roupp |first2=Heidi |title=How to Prepare for SAT II: World history |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=00FMIzzsv4MC&pg=PA176 |edition=2nd |year=2001 |publisher=Barron's Educational Series |isbn=978-0-7641-1385-7 |page=176}}</ref>

Muslim mathematicians introduced [[Euclidean Geometry]], [[Spherical trigonometry]] and [[Arabic numerals]] in China.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last=Meuleman |editor-first=Johan |title=Islam in the Era of Globalization: Muslim Attitudes Towards Modernity and Identity |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ulSRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA197 |year=2002 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-78829-2 |page=197}}</ref>

Kublai brought siege engineers [[Ismail (mangonel expert)|Ismail]] and [[Al al-Din]] to China, and together they invented the "[[Trebuchet|Muslim trebuchet]]" ([[Hui-Hui Pao]]), which was utilized by Kublai Khan during the [[Battle of Xiangyang]].<ref name="Atwood354">{{harvnb|Atwood|2004|p=354}}</ref>

====Continuation of the restriction upon some Abrahamic ritual practices====
Yuan Emperors like Kublai Khan forbade Islamic practices such as butchering according to Jewish ([[kashrut]]) or Muslim ([[dhabihah]]) legal codes and other restrictive degrees continued. [[Circumcision]] was also strictly forbidden.<ref>{{cite book|ref=harv|last=Dillon|first=Michael|authorlink=Michael Dillon|title=China's Muslim Hui Community: Migration, Settlement and Sects|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hUEswLE4SWUC&pg=PA24|year=1999|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-7007-1026-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|ref=harv|last=Elverskog|first=Johan|authorlink=Johan Elverskog|title=Buddhism and Islam on the Silk Road|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N7_4Gr9Q438C&pg=PA230|year=2011|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|isbn=0-8122-0531-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://chinainstitute.anu.edu.au/morrison/morrison59.pdf|title=The Integration of Religious Minorities in China: The Case of Chinese Muslims|author=Donald Daniel Leslie|year=1998|page=12|publisher=The Fifty-ninth George Ernest Morrison Lecture in Ethnology}}.</ref>

==Warfare and foreign relations==
{{See also|Mongol military tactics and organization|Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty}}
[[File:Yuan chinese gun.jpg|thumb|right|A Yuan dynasty [[hand cannon]]]]

Although Kublai restricted the functions of the kheshig, he created a new imperial bodyguard, at first entirely Chinese in composition but later strengthened with [[Kipchaks|Kipchak]], [[Alans|Alan]] ([[Asud]]), and [[Russians|Russian]] units.<ref>''The New Encyclopædia Britannica'', p. 111</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Farquhar |first=David M. |title=The Government of China Under Mongolian Rule: A Reference Guide |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uFNuAAAAMAAJ |year=1990 |publisher=F. Steiner Verlag Wiesbaden |isbn=978-3-515-05578-9 |page=272}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Harrassowitz |first=Otto |title=Archivum Eurasiae medii aeivi [i.e. aevi]. |page=36}}</ref> Once his own kheshig was organized in 1263, Kublai put three of the original kheshigs under the charge of the descendants of Genghis Khan's assistants, Borokhula, Boorchu, and [[Muqali]]. Kublai began the practice of having the four great aristocrats in his kheshig sign [[jarlig]]s (decrees), a practice that spread to all other Mongol khanates.<ref name="Atwood264">{{harvnb|Atwood|2004|p=264}}</ref> Mongol and Chinese units were organized using the same decimal organization that Genghis Khan used. The Mongols eagerly adopted new artillery and technologies. Kublai and his generals adopted an elaborate, moderate style of military campaigns in South China. Effective assimilation of Chinese naval techniques allowed the Yuan army to quickly conquer the Song.

===Kublai's annexation of Goryeo===
{{See also|Korea under Yuan rule}}
[[File:Mirror with Dragons Chasing Flaming Pearls LACMA M.2000.15.181.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Two dragons chasing a flaming pearl was a symbol associated with [[Goryeo]] and later influenced Yuan dynasty's preferences for dragons.]]
[[File:Kubilai.jpg|thumbnail|B. Sumiyabaatar/ Б. Сумьяабаатар, "Хубилай Их Хааны үеийн Монгол - Сонгосын харилцаа", "Relationship between Mongolia and Korea during Kubilai Khan rule", 439p, 2015, ISBN 978-99973-302-5-3]]
Kublai Khan invaded [[Goryeo]] (the state on the [[Korean Peninsula]]) and made it a tributary vassal state in 1260. After another Mongol intervention in 1273, Goryeo came under even tighter control of the Yuan.<ref name="Atwood403">{{harvnb|Atwood|2004|p=403}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Franke |editor1-first=Herbert |editor2-last=Twitchett |editor2-first=Denis C. |title=The Cambridge History of China: Volume 6, Alien Regimes and Border States, 907–1368 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iN9Tdfdap5MC |year=1994 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-24331-5 |page=473}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Mackerras |first=Colin |title=China's Minorities: Integration and Modernization in the Twentieth Century |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QQRxAAAAMAAJ |year=1994 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-585988-1 |page=29}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Ballard |first=George Alexander |title=The Influence of the Sea on the Political History of Japan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IOwTAAAAIAAJ |year=1921 |publisher=E.P. Dutton |page=21}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Schirokauer |first=Conrad |title=A Brief History of Chinese and Japanese civilizations |page=211}}</ref> Goryeo became a Mongol military base, and several myriarchy commands were established there. The court of the Goryeo supplied Korean troops and an ocean-going naval force for the Mongol campaigns.

===Further naval expansion===
[[File:KangnidoMap.jpg|thumb|The ''[[Gangnido]]'' reflects the [[Chinese geography|Chinese geographical knowledge]] during the [[Mongol Empire]] about countries in the West.<ref name="miya">(Miya 2006; Miya 2007)</ref>]]

Kublai decided to invade Japan, Burma, Vietnam, and Java following the suggestions of some of his Mongol officials. He also attempted to subjugate peripheral lands such as Sakhalin, where its indigenous people eventually submitted to the Mongols by 1308, after Kublai's death. These costly [[Mongol invasions and conquests|invasions and conquests]] and the introduction of paper currency caused inflation. From 1273 to 1276, war against the Song Dynasty and Japan made the issue of paper currency expand from 110,000 ding to 1,420,000 ding.<ref name="Atwood434">{{harvnb|Atwood|2004|p=434}}</ref>

===Invasions of Japan===
{{main article|Mongol invasions of Japan}}
[[File:Mōko Shūrai Ekotoba 2.jpg|thumb|left|The samurai Suenaga facing Mongol arrows and bombs. ''[[Mōko Shūrai Ekotoba]]'' (蒙古襲来絵詞), circa 1293.]]

Within Kublai's court his most trusted governors and advisers appointed by meritocracy with the essence of multiculturalism were Mongols, [[Semu]], Koreans, Hui and [[Chinese people]].<ref name="muslimheritage.com"/><ref name="元史">[[History of Yuan]] 『元史』 卷十二 本紀第十二 世祖九 至元十九年七月壬戌（August 9, 1282）「高麗国王請、自造船百五十艘、助征日本。」</ref> Because the [[Wokou]] extended support to the crumbling Song dynasty, Kublai Khan initiated [[Mongol invasions of Japan|invasions of Japan]].

The court of Goryeo supplied Korean troops and an ocean-going naval force for the Mongol campaigns. Despite the opposition of some of his Confucian-trained advisers, Kublai decided to invade Japan, Burma, Vietnam, and Java, following the suggestions of some of his Mongol officials. He also attempted to subjugate peripheral lands such as Sakhalin, where its indigenous people eventually submitted to the Mongols by 1308 after Kublai's death.

Kublai Khan twice attempted to invade Japan. It is believed that both attempts were thwarted by bad weather or a flaw in the design of ships that were based on river boats without keels, and his fleets were destroyed. The first attempt took place in 1274, with a fleet of 900 ships.<ref>Ж.Ганболд, Т.Мөнхцэцэг, Д.Наран, А.Пунсаг-Монголын Юань улс, хуудас 122</ref>

The second invasion occurred in 1281 when Mongols sent two separate forces: 900 ships containing 40,000 Korean, Chinese, and Mongol troops were sent from Masan, while a force of 100,000 sailed from southern China in 3,500 ships, each close to {{convert|240|ft|m}} long. The fleet was hastily assembled and ill-equipped to cope with maritime conditions. In November, they sailed into the treacherous waters that separate Korea and Japan by 110 miles. The Mongols easily took over [[Tsushima Island]] about halfway across the strait and then [[Iki Island]] closer to [[Kyushu]]. The Korean fleet reached [[Hakata Bay]] on June 23, 1281 and landed its troops and animals, but the ships from China were nowhere to be seen.

The [[samurai]] warriors, following their custom, rode out against the Mongol forces for individual combat but the Mongols held their formation. The Mongols fought as a united force, not as individuals, and bombarded the samurai with exploding missiles and showered them with arrows. Eventually, the remaining Japanese withdrew from the coastal zone inland to a fortress. The Mongol forces did not chase the fleeing Japanese into an area about which they lacked reliable intelligence.

[[File:Takezaki suenaga ekotoba3.jpg|thumb|350px|Japanese [[samurai]] boarding Yuan ships in 1281.]]

[[Maritime archaeology|Maritime archaeologist]] Kenzo Hayashida led the investigation that discovered the wreckage of the second invasion fleet off the western coast of [[Takashima District, Shiga]]. His team's findings strongly indicate that Kublai rushed to invade Japan and attempted to construct his enormous fleet in one year, a task that should have taken up to five years. This forced the Chinese to use any available ships, including river boats. Most importantly, the Chinese, under Kublai's control, built many ships quickly in order to contribute to the fleets in both of the invasions. Hayashida theorizes that, had Kublai used standard, well-constructed ocean-going ships with curved keels to prevent capsizing, his navy might have survived the journey to and from Japan and might have conquered it as intended. In October 2011, a wreck, possibly one of Kublai's invasion craft, was found off the coast of [[Nagasaki]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://articles.cnn.com/2011-10-25/asia/world_asia_japan-archaeology-shipwreck_1_fleet-ship-invasion?_s=PM:ASIA |title=Shipwreck may be part of Kublai Khan's lost fleet |date=October 25, 2011}}</ref> David Nicolle wrote in ''The Mongol Warlords'', "Huge losses had also been suffered in terms of casualties and sheer expense, while the myth of Mongol invincibility had been shattered throughout eastern Asia." He also wrote that Kublai was determined to mount a third invasion, despite the horrendous cost to the economy and to his and Mongol prestige of the first two defeats, and only his death and the unanimous agreement of his advisers not to invade prevented a third attempt.<ref>Nicolle, David ''The Mongol Warlords''</ref>

<gallery>
File:MokoShuraiE-Kotoba I.jpg|Mongol soldiers, second version
File:MokoShuraiE-Kotoba III.jpg|Mongol ships, second version
File:YuanJunk(14thcentury).jpg|Painting of a 14th-century prized Yuan dynasty [[Junk (ship)|junk]]
</gallery>

===Invasions of Vietnam===
{{main article|Mongol invasions of Vietnam}}
Kublai Khan invaded [[Đại Việt]] (now Vietnam) three times, each repelled by the ruling [[Trần dynasty]]. The ancestors of the Trần clan originated from the province of [[Fujian]] and migrated to Đại Việt under Trần Kinh 陳京 (Chén Jīng),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://leminhkhai.wordpress.com/2013/09/07/the-stranger-kings-of-the-ly-and-tran-dynasties/ |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2016-08-18 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160311063214/https://leminhkhai.wordpress.com/2013/09/07/the-stranger-kings-of-the-ly-and-tran-dynasties/ |archivedate=2016-03-11 |df= }}</ref> where their mixed-blooded descendants later established the [[Trần dynasty]] and came to rule Đại Việt; despite many intermarriages between the Trần and several royal members of the Lý dynasty alongside members of their royal court as in the case of Trần Lý<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.baomoi.com/ham-sac-to-trung-tu-tu-hai-minh/c/10426418.epi | title=Ham sắc, Tô Trung Từ tự hại mình access-date=2017-03-09}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.bienkhoi.com/so-26/nha-tran.htm | title=Nhà Trần khởi nghiệp | access-date=2016-03-09}}</ref> and [[Trần Thừa]],<ref>{{cite book| title=A history of Vietnam: from Hong Bang to Tu Duc |last=Chapuis |first=Oscar |year=1995 |publisher=Greenwood Press |isbn=0-313-29622-7 |page=85}}</ref> some of the mixed-blood descendants of the clan could still speak Chinese, as evidenced when a Yuan dynasty envoy had a meeting with the Chinese-speaking Trần prince Trần Quốc Tuấn (later Supreme Commander [[Trần Hưng Đạo]]) in 1282.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Taylor|first1=K. W.|title=A history of the Vietnamese|date=2013|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-521-69915-0|pages=103, 120|edition=1. publ.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6UHi9JXNokEC&pg=PA120&dq=tran+fujian&hl=en&sa=X&ei=XiPNVPrfH4WgNsWpgagC&ved=0CCQQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=tran%20fujian&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hall|first1=edited by Kenneth R.|title=Secondary cities and urban networking in the Indian Ocean Realm, c. 1400–1800|date=2008|publisher=Lexington Books|location=Lanham|isbn=978-0-7391-2835-0|page=159|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gyPjBevBHxcC&pg=PA159&dq=tran+fujian&hl=en&sa=X&ei=XiPNVPrfH4WgNsWpgagC&ved=0CD8Q6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=tran%20fujian&f=false ed.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|ref=harv|last1=Werner|first1=Jayne|authorlink1=Jayne Werner|last2=Whitmore|first2=John K.|authorlink2=John K. Whitmore|last3=Dutton|first3=George|authorlink3=George Dutton|title=Sources of Vietnamese Tradition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZHD4Asj0FagC&pg=PT90|year=2012|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-51110-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|ref=harv|last=Gunn|first=Geoffrey C.|authorlink=Geoffrey C. Gunn|title=History Without Borders: The Making of an Asian World Region, 1000–1800|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E10tnvapZt0C&pg=PA112|year=2011|publisher=Hong Kong University Press|isbn=978-988-8083-34-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|ref=harv|last1=Embree|first1=Ainslie Thomas|authorlink1=Ainslie Embree|last2=Lewis|first2=Robin Jeanne |authorlink2=Robin Jeanne Lewis|title=Encyclopedia of Asian history|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cNwpAQAAMAAJ|year=1988|publisher=Scribner}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|ref=harv|last=Woodside|first=Alexander|authorlink=Alexander Woodside|title=Vietnam and the Chinese Model: A Comparative Study of Vietnamese and Chinese Government in the First Half of the Nineteenth Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0LgSI9UQNpwC&pg=PA8|year=1971|publisher=Harvard Univ Asia Center|isbn=978-0-674-93721-5}}</ref>

The first incursion was in 1257, but the Trần dynasty was able to repel the invasion and ultimately re-established the peace treaty between the Mongols and Đại Việt in the twelfth lunar month of 1257. When Kublai became the Great Khan in 1260, the Trần dynasty sent tribute every three years and received a [[darughachi]].<ref>Matthew Bennett (ed.), ''The Hutchinson Dictionary of Ancient & Medieval Warfare'', p. 332</ref><ref name="Atwood579">{{harvnb|Atwood|2004|p=579}}</ref> However, their kings soon declined to attend the Mongol court in person. The Great Khan sent his envoys to order the Trần king to open his land to allow the Yuan army to pass through to invade the kingdom of [[Champa]], but the Đại Việt court refused.  Kublai sent another envoy to the Đại Việt to demand that the Trần king surrender his land and his kingship.  The Trần king assembled all his citizens, allowing all to vote on whether to surrender to the Yuan or to stand and fight for their homeland. The vote was a unanimous decision to stand and fight the invaders.

The second Mongol invasion of Đại Việt began late in 1284, when the Mongol Yuan forces under the command of Toghan, the prince of Kublai Khan, crossed the border and quickly occupied Thăng Long (now [[Hanoi]]) in January 1285, after the victorious battle of Omar in Vạn Kiếp (north east of Hanoi). At the same time [[Sogetu]], second in command of the Yuan army, moved from Champa northward and rapidly marched to Nghe An in the north central region of Vietnam, where the army of the Trần dynasty under general Trần Kien was defeated and surrendered to him. However, the Trần king and the commander-in-chief Trần Hưng Đạo changed their tactics from defence to attack and struck against the Mongols. In April, General [[Trần Quang Khải]] defeated Sogetu in [[Chương Dương]] and the Trần king won a battle in Tây Kết, where Sogetu died. Soon after, general [[Trần Nhật Duật]] also won a battle in Hàm Tử (now [[Hưng Yên]]) and Toghan was defeated by General [[Trần Hưng Đạo]], thus Kublai failed in his first attempt to invade Đại Việt. Toghan hid himself inside a bronze pipe to avoid being killed by the Đại Việt archers; this act brought humiliation upon the Mongol Empire and Toghan himself.

After his first failure, Kublai wanted to install Nhân Tông's brother Trần Ích Tắc – who had defected to the Mongols – as king of Annam, but hardship in the Yuan's supply base in [[Hunan]] and Kaidu's invasion forced Kublai to abandon his plans. In 1285 the [[Tibet under Yuan rule#Revolt|Drikung Kagyu sect revolted]], attacking Sakya [[gompa|monasteries]]. The Chagatayid khan, [[Duwa]], helped the rebels, laying siege to [[Gaochang]] and defeating Kublai's garrisons in the [[Tarim Basin]].<ref>M. Kutlukov, "Mongol Rule in Eastern Turkestan". Article in collection ''Tataro-Mongols in Asia and Europe''. Moscow, 1970</ref> Kaidu destroyed an army at [[Jimsar County|Beshbalik]] and occupied the city the following year. Many Uyghurs abandoned [[Kashgar]] for safer bases back in the eastern part of the Yuan dynasty. After Kublai's grandson [[Buqa-Temür]] crushed the resistance of the [[Drikung Kagyu]], killing 10,000 Tibetans in 1291, Tibet was fully pacified.

The third Mongol invasion began in 1287. It was better organized than the previous effort; a large fleet and plentiful stocks of food were used. The Mongol Yuan forces, under the command of Toghan, moved to Vạn Kiếp from the north west and met the infantry and cavalry of Kublai's Kipchak commander Omar (coming by another way along the Red River) and quickly won the battle. The naval fleet rapidly attained victory in Vân Đồn near [[Hạ Long Bay]]. However, the Đại Việt General [[Trần Khánh Dư]] managed to intercept and captured the heavy, fully stocked cargo ships, filled with food and supplies for Toghan's army. As a result, the Mongolian army in Thăng Long suffered an acute shortage of food. With no news about the supply fleet, Toghan ordered his army to retreat to Vạn Kiếp. The Đại Việt army began their general offensive and recaptured a number of locations occupied by the Mongols. Groups of Đại Việt infantry were ordered to attack the Mongols in Vạn Kiếp. Toghan had to split his army into two and retreated in 1288.{{Citation needed|date=April 2012}}

In early April 1288 the naval fleet, led by Omar and escorted by infantry, fled home along the [[Battle of Bạch Đằng (1288)|Bạch Đằng river]]. As bridges and roads were destroyed and attacks were launched by Đại Việt troops, the Mongols reached Bạch Đằng without an infantry escort. Đại Việt's small flotilla engaged in battle and pretended to retreat. The Mongols eagerly pursued the Đại Việt troops only to fall into their pre-arranged battlefield. Thousands of small Đại Việt boats quickly appeared from both banks, launched a fierce attack that broke the Mongols' combat formation. The Mongols, meeting such a sudden and strong attack, in panic tried to withdraw to the sea. The Mongols' boats were halted, and many were damaged and sank. At that time, a number of fire rafts quickly rushed toward the Mongols, who were frightened and jumped down to reach the banks where they were dealt a heavy blow by an army led by the Trần king and [[Trần Hưng Đạo]].

The Mongol naval fleet was totally destroyed and Omar was captured. At the same time, Đại Việt's army continuously attacked and smashed to pieces Toghan's army on its withdrawal through Lạng Sơn. Toghan risked his life to take a shortcut through thick forest in order to flee home. The crown prince was banished to [[Yangzhou]] for life by his father, Kublai Khan. Nevertheless, the Trần king accepted Kublai Khan's supremacy as the Great Khan in order to avoid more conflicts. In 1292, Temür Khan, Kublai Khan's successor, returned all detained envoys and settled for a tributary relationship with the Trần king, which continued to the end of the Yuan dynasty.<ref name="Atwood579"/><ref name="Grousset290">{{harvnb|Grousset|1970|p=290}}</ref>

===Southeast Asia and South Seas===
{{main article|First Mongol invasion of Burma|Mongol invasion of Java}}
Three expeditions against Burma, in 1277, 1283, and 1287, brought the Mongol forces to the [[Irrawaddy Delta]], whereupon they captured [[Bagan]], the capital of the [[Pagan Kingdom]] and established their government.<ref name="Grousset291">{{harvnb|Grousset|1970|p=291}}</ref> Kublai had to be content with establishing a formal [[suzerainty]], but Pagan finally became a tributary state, sending tributes to the Yuan court until the Mongols were expelled from China in the 1360s.<ref name="Atwood72">{{harvnb|Atwood|2004|p=72}}</ref> Mongol interests in these areas were commercial and tributary relationships.

During the last years of his reign, Kublai launched a naval [[punitive expedition]] of 20–30,000 men against [[Singhasari]] on Java (1293), but the invading Mongol forces were forced to withdraw by [[Majapahit]] after considerable losses of more than 3000 troops. Nevertheless, by 1294, the year that Kublai died, the [[Thai people|Thai]] kingdoms of [[Sukhothai Kingdom|Sukhothai]] and [[Kingdom of Chiang Mai|Chiang Mai]] had become vassal states of the Yuan dynasty.<ref name="Grousset291"/>

===Europe===
{{main article|Marco Polo|Rabban Bar Sauma}}
{{further information|Europeans in Medieval China}}
[[File:Kublai giving support to the Venetians.JPG|270px|thumb|Kublai gives financial support to [[Niccolò and Maffeo Polo|the Polo family]].]]
Under Kublai, direct contact between East Asia and Europe was established, made possible by Mongol control of the central Asian trade routes and facilitated by the presence of efficient postal services. In the beginning of the 13th century, large numbers of Europeans and Central Asians&nbsp;– merchants, travelers, and missionaries of different orders&nbsp;– made their way to China. The presence of Mongol power allowed large numbers of Chinese, intent on warfare or trade, to travel to other parts of the Mongol Empire, all the way to Russia, Persia, and [[Mesopotamia]].{{Citation needed|date=April 2012}}

[[File:VoyagesOfRabbanBarSauma.jpg|thumb|270px|right|[[Rabban Bar Sauma]], ambassador of Great Khan [[Kublai]] and Ilkhan [[Arghun]], travelled from Dadu to Rome, Paris, and [[Bordeaux]] to meet with European rulers in 1287–88.]]

==The Capital City of the Emperor==
[[File:Miaoyingsi baita.jpg|thumb|right|The White Stupa of Dadu (or Khanbaliq; now [[Beijing]])]]
After Kublai Khan was proclaimed Khagan at his residence in [[Xanadu]] on May 5, 1260, he began to organize the country. Zhang Wenqian, a central government official, was sent by Kublai in 1260 to Daming where unrest had been reported in the local population. A friend of Zhang's, [[Guo Shoujing]], accompanied him on this mission. Guo was interested in engineering, was an expert astronomer and skilled instrument maker, and he understood that good astronomical observations depended on expertly made instruments. Guo began to construct astronomical instruments, including water clocks for accurate timing and armillary spheres that represented the celestial globe. [[Turkestan]]i architect Ikhtiyar al-Din, also known as "Igder", designed the buildings of the city of the Khagan, Khanbaliq (Chinese ''Dadu'').<ref>{{cite book |last=Schinz |first=Alfred |title=The Magic Square |page=291}}</ref> Kublai also employed foreign artists to build his new capital; one of them, a [[Newar people|Newar]] named [[Araniko]], built the White [[Stupa]] that was the largest structure in Khanbaliq/Dadu.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lall |first=Kesar |title=A Nepalese Miscellany |page=32}}</ref>

Zhang advised Kublai that Guo was a leading expert in hydraulic engineering. Kublai knew the importance of water management for irrigation, transport of grain, and flood control, and he asked Guo to look at these aspects in the area between Dadu (now Beijing) and the Yellow River. To provide Dadu with a new supply of water, Guo found the Baifu spring in Mount Shen and had a {{convert|30|km|abbr=on}} channel built to move water to Dadu. He proposed connecting the water supply across different river basins, built new canals with sluices to control the water level, and achieved great success with the improvements he made. This pleased Kublai and Guo was asked to undertake similar projects in other parts of the country. In 1264 he was asked to go to [[Gansu]] to repair the damage that had been caused to the irrigation systems by the years of war during the Mongol advance through the region. Guo travelled extensively along with his friend Zhang taking notes of the work needed to be done to unblock damaged parts of the system and to make improvements to its efficiency. He sent his report directly to Kublai Khan.{{Citation needed|date=April 2012}}

==Nayan's rebellion==
During the conquest of the [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin]], Genghis Khan's younger brothers received large [[appanage]]s in [[Manchuria]].<ref>Paul Pelliot, ''Notes on Marco Polo'', p. 85</ref> Their descendants strongly supported Kublai's coronation in 1260, but the younger generation desired more independence. Kublai enforced Ögedei Khan's regulations that the Mongol noblemen could appoint overseers and the Great Khan's special officials, in their appanages, but otherwise respected appanage rights. Kublai's son Manggala established direct control over [[Chang'an]] and [[Shanxi]] in 1272. In 1274, Kublai appointed Lian Xixian to investigate abuses of power by Mongol appanage holders in Manchuria.<ref>Anne Elizabeth McLaren, ''Chinese popular culture and Ming chantefables'', p. 244</ref> The region called Lia-tung was immediately brought under the Khagan's control, in 1284, eliminating autonomy of the Mongol nobles there.<ref>{{cite book |last=Mullie |first=E. P. J. |title=De Mongoolse prins Nayan |pages=9–11}}</ref>

[[File:Belt plaque with dragon design.jpg|thumb|A Yuan dynasty [[jade]] belt plaque featuring carved designs of the [[Azure Dragon]], highly regarded as a symbol of [[Yuan dynasty]] [[China]]'s maritime strength.]]

Threatened by the advance of Kublai's bureaucratization, [[Nayan (Mongol Prince)|Nayan]] a fourth generation descendant of one of Genghis Khan's brothers, either [[Temüge]] or [[Belgutei]], instigated a revolt in 1287. (More than one prince named Nayan existed and their identity is confused.<ref>Pelliot, P. (1963) ''Notes on Marco Polo'', Vol. I, Imprimerie Nationale, Paris, pp. 354–355</ref>) Nayan tried to join forces with Kublai's competitor Kaidu in Central Asia.<ref>Igor de Rachewiltz, ''In the service of the Khan: eminent personalities of the early Mongol-Yüan period'', p. 599</ref> Manchuria's native [[Jurchen people|Jurchens]] and [[Tungusic peoples|Water Tatars]], who had suffered a famine, supported Nayan. Virtually all the fraternal lines under Hadaan, a descendant of [[Hachiun]], and Shihtur, a grandson of [[Qasar]], joined Nayan's rebellion,<ref name="Grousset293">{{harvnb|Grousset|1970|p=293}}</ref> and because Nayan was a popular prince, Ebugen, a grandson of Genghis Khan's son Khulgen, and the family of Khuden, a younger brother of [[Güyük Khan]], contributed troops for this rebellion.<ref name="Amitai-PreissMorgan33">{{harvnb|Amitai-Preiss|Morgan|2000|p=33}}</ref>

The rebellion was crippled by early detection and timid leadership. Kublai sent Bayan to keep Nayan and Kaidu apart by occupying Karakorum, while Kublai led another army against the rebels in Manchuria. Kublai's commander Oz Temür's Mongol force attacked Nayan's 60,000 inexperienced soldiers on June 14, while Chinese and Alan guards under Li Ting protected Kublai. The army of [[Chungnyeol of Goryeo]] assisted Kublai in battle. After a hard fight, Nayan's troops withdrew behind their carts, and Li Ting began bombardment and attacked Nayan's camp that night. Kublai's force pursued Nayan, who was eventually captured and executed without bloodshed, by being smothered under felt carpets, a traditional way of executing princes.<ref name="Amitai-PreissMorgan33"/> Meanwhile, the rebel prince Shikqtur invaded the Chinese district of [[Liaoning]] but was defeated within a month. Kaidu withdrew westward to avoid a battle. However, Kaidu defeated a major Yuan army in the [[Khangai Mountains]] and briefly occupied Karakorum in 1289. Kaidu had ridden away before Kublai could mobilize a larger army.<ref name="Grousset294"/>

Widespread but uncoordinated uprisings of Nayan's supporters continued until 1289; these were ruthlessly repressed. The rebel princes' troops were taken from them and redistributed among the imperial family.<ref>Rashid al-Din JT, I/2 in TVOIRA</ref> Kublai harshly punished the [[darughachi]]s appointed by the rebels in Mongolia and Manchuria.<ref name="Amitai-PreissMorgan43">{{harvnb|Amitai-Preiss|Morgan|2000|p=43}}</ref> This rebellion forced Kublai to approve the creation of the [[Liaoyang Branch Secretariat]] on December 4, 1287, while rewarding loyal fraternal princes.

==Later years==
{{unreferenced section|date=April 2012}}
[[File:GhazanConversionToIslam.JPG|thumb|In [[Ilkhanate]] [[Persia]], [[Ghazan]] converted to Islam and recognized Kublai Khan as his [[suzerain]].]]

Kublai Khan dispatched his grandson [[Gammala]] to [[Burkhan Khaldun]] in 1291 to ensure his claim to [[Ikh Khorig]], where Genghis was buried, a sacred place strongly protected by the Kublaids. Bayan was in control of Karakorum and was re-establishing control over surrounding areas in 1293, so Kublai's rival Kaidu did not attempt any large-scale military action for the next three years. From 1293 on, Kublai's army cleared Kaidu's forces from the [[Central Siberian Plateau]].{{Citation needed|date=April 2012}}

After his wife Chabi died in 1281, Kublai began to withdraw from direct contact with his advisers, and he issued instructions through one of his other queens, Nambui. Only two of Kublai's daughters are known by name; he may have had others. Unlike the formidable women of his grandfather's day, Kublai's wives and daughters were an almost invisible presence. Kublai's original choice of successor was his son [[Zhenjin]], who became the head of the [[Zhongshu Sheng]] and actively administered the dynasty according to [[Confucian]] fashion. Nomukhan, after returning from captivity in the [[Golden Horde]], expressed resentment that Zhenjin had been made heir apparent, but he was banished to the north. An official proposed that Kublai should abdicate in favor of Zhenjin in 1285, a suggestion that angered Kublai, who refused to see Zhenjin. Zhenjin died soon afterwards in 1286, eight years before his father. Kublai regretted this and remained very close to his wife, Bairam (also known as Kokejin).

Kublai became increasingly despondent after the deaths of his favorite wife and his chosen heir Zhenjin. The failure of the military campaigns in Vietnam and Japan also haunted him. Kublai turned to food and drink for comfort, became grossly overweight, and suffered gout and diabetes. The emperor overindulged in alcohol and the traditional meat-rich Mongol diet, which may have contributed to his gout. Kublai sank into depression due to the loss of his family, his poor health and advancing age. Kublai tried every medical treatment available, from Korean shamans to Vietnamese doctors, and remedies and medicines, but to no avail. At the end of 1293, the emperor refused to participate in the traditional New Years' ceremony. Before his death, Kublai passed the seal of Crown Prince to Zhenjin's son [[Temür Khan|Temür]], who would become the next Khagan of the Mongol Empire and the second ruler of the Yuan dynasty. Seeking an old companion to comfort him in his final illness, the palace staff could choose only Bayan, more than 30 years his junior. Kublai weakened steadily, and on February 18, 1294, he died at the age of 78. Two days later, the funeral cortège took his body to the burial place of the khans in Mongolia.{{Citation needed|date=April 2012}}

==Poetry==
[[File:Summer Palace, Beijing, China.jpg|270px|thumb|[[Summer Palace#Longevity Hill|Longevity Hill]] in [[Beijing]], where Kublai Khan wrote his poem.]]

Kublai was well versed in Chinese poetry, though most of his works have not survived. Only one Chinese poem written by him is included in the ''Selection of Yuan Poetry'' (元詩選), titled 'Inspiration recorded while enjoying the ascent to Spring Mountain'. It was translated into Mongolian by the Inner Mongolian scholar B.Buyan in the same style as classical Mongolian poetry and transcribed into Cyrillic by Ya.Ganbaatar. It is said that once in spring Kublai Khan went to worship at a Buddhist temple at the [[Summer Palace]] in western Khanbaliq (Beijing) and on his way back ascended [[Summer Palace#Longevity Hill|Longevity Hill]] (''Tumen Nast Uul'' in Mongolian), where he was filled with inspiration and wrote this poem.<ref>Ya.Ganbaatar. ''Yuan ulsiin uyiin mongolchuudiin hyatadaar bichsen shulgiin songomol'' (Selection of Chinese poems written by Mongolians during the Yuan Dynasty), Ulan Bator, 2007 p. 15</ref>

{|
! colspan="3" | Inspiration recorded while enjoying the ascent to Spring Mountain ({{lang|zh-Hant|陟玩春山記興}})
|-
| <poem>{{lang|zh-Hant|時膺韶景陟蘭峰
不憚躋攀謁粹容
花色映霞祥彩混
壚煙拂霧瑞光重

雨霑瓊干巖邊竹
風襲琴聲嶺際松
淨刹玉毫瞻禮罷
回程仙駕馭蒼龍}}</poem>
| <poem>''Shí yīng sháo jǐng zhì lán fēng;''
''Bú dàn jī pān yè cuì róng;''
''Huā sè yìng xiá xiáng cǎi hùn;''
''Lú yān fú wù ruì guāng chóng;''

''Yǔ zhān qióng gàn yán biān zhú;''
''Fēng xí qín shēng lǐng jì sōng;''
''Jìng chà yù háo zhān lǐ bà;''
''Huí chéng xiān jià yù cāng lóng.''</poem>
|}

This is translated:
{|
|- style="vertical-align:bottom;"
|
;Buyan's Mongolian translation:
<poem>Havar tsagiin nairamduu uliral dor anhilam uulnaa avirlaa
Halshralgui orgil deer garaad Altan Nüür dor baraalhchuhui
Hüis tsetseg tuyaaran myaralzaad ölziit öngö solongormui
Hülisiin utaa hüdenten tunaraad belegt gerel tsatsarmui

Hadan deerh has hulsnaa huriin dusal bömbölzönhön
Halil davaanii nogoon narsnaa serchigneh salhi högjimdmüi
Buddiin süm dor burhnii ömnö hüj örgön ayaarlaad
Butsah zamd süih teregnee höh luu hölöglöjühüi</poem>
|
;English translation of Buyan's Mongolian version:
<poem>I ascended on Fragrant Hill in the friendly season of spring
Not discouraged I climbed to the peak and met the Golden Face
Flowers shone bright rays and auspicious colors gleamed like a rainbow
Incense smoke wafted like mist and a blessed light emanated

Raindrops were like bubbles on jade bamboos at the edge of the big rock
The blowing wind played a song among the green pines at the mountain pass
In front of the Buddha in the temple I conducted the incense ceremony
And on the way back I rode a [[Azure Dragon|Blue Dragon]] in the royal carriage.</poem>
|}

==Family==
{{see also|Family tree of Genghis Khan}}
{{Refimprove section|date=April 2012}}
[[File:YuanEmpressAlbumChabi.jpg|thumb|right|Chabi, Khatun of Kublai and Empress of the Mongol Empire]]

Kublai first married Tegulen but she died very early. Then he married [[Chabi]] of the [[Khongirad]], who was his most beloved empress. After Chabi's death in 1281, Kublai married Chabi's young cousin, [[Nambui]], presumably in accordance with Chabi's wish.<ref name="Man2004p394">{{harvnb|Man|2004|p=394}}</ref>

Kublai and his wives' children included:
*[[Dorji]], the director of the Secretariat and head of the Bureau of Military Affairs from 1263, but was sickly and died young.
*[[Zhenjin]], father of [[Temür Khan]], Kublai's successor.
*[[Manggala]], a viceroy in [[Shaanxi]].
*Nomukhan
*Khungjil
*Aychi
*Saqulghachi
*Qughchu
*Toghan led Mongol armies into Burma and Vietnam.
*Khulan-temur
*Tsever
*[[Princess Jeguk|Qutlugh Kelmysh Beki]] married the king [[Chungnyeol of Goryeo]] and became empress of the Goryeo.<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Cheong-Soo |editor1-first=Suh |editor2-last=Rowan |editor2-first=Bernard |editor3-last=Cho |editor3-first=Yoon-jung |title=An Encyclopaedia of Korean Culture |year=2004 |publisher=Hansebon |isbn=978-89-951352-4-2 |page=84}}</ref>
*and a further son and two daughters; names unknown.

==Legacy==
[[File:Khubilai statue.jpg|thumb|right|Statue of Kublai Khan in [[Sükhbaatar Square]], [[Ulaanbaatar]]. Together with [[Ögedei Khan]]'s, and the much larger [[Genghis Khan]]'s statues, it forms a statue complex dedicated to the Mongol Empire.]]
{{further information|Religion in the Mongol Empire}}
Kublai's seizure of power in 1260 pushed the Mongol Empire into a new direction. Despite his controversial election, which accelerated the disunity of the Mongols, Kublai's willingness to formalize the Mongol realm's symbiotic relation with China brought the Mongol Empire to international attention. Kublai and his predecessors' conquests were largely responsible for re-creating a unified, militarily powerful China.{{citation needed|date=September 2015}} The Mongol rule of [[Tibet]], [[Manchuria]], and the [[Mongolia]]n steppe from a capital at modern Beijing were the precedents for the [[Qing dynasty]]'s Inner Asian Empire.<ref name="Atwood611">{{harvnb|Atwood|2004|p=611}}</ref>

===In popular culture===
* Kublai and Shangdu or Xanadu are the subject of various later artworks, including the English Romantic [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]]'s poem "[[Kubla Khan]]", in which Coleridge makes Xanadu a symbol of mystery and splendor (written in October 1797 while under the influence of opium).
* Kublai Khan is portrayed by [[Ying Ruocheng]] in the 1982 miniseries ''[[Marco Polo (miniseries)|Marco Polo]]''.
* Kublai Khan plays a significant role in the 2014 [[Netflix]] production ''[[Marco Polo (TV series)|Marco Polo]],'' in which he is depicted by [[Benedict Wong]].
* The Government of [[Mongolia]] celebrated Kublai Khan's 800th birthday on 15 September 2015 to honour and value his contribution to Mongolian history and promote research works related to [[History of Mongolia|Mongolian history]].<ref>http://www.infomongolia.com/ct/ci/9712</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2015/09/21/asia-pacific/divided-mongolias-find-unity-common-ancestor-kublai/|title=Divided Mongolias find unity in common ancestor Kublai|date=21 September 2015|publisher=|via=Japan Times Online}}</ref>
* Kublai Khan is portrayed by [[Hu Jun]] in the 2013 Chinese television series ''[[The Legend of Kublai Khan]]''.

== See also ==
* [[Division of the Mongol Empire]]
* [[History of Beijing]]
* [[Kaidu–Kublai war]]
* [[List of emperors of the Yuan dynasty]]
* [[List of Mongol rulers]]
* [[List of rulers of China]]
* [[Temür Khan]]
* [[Toluid Civil War]]

== Notes ==
* General note: Dates given here are in the [[Julian calendar]]. They are not in the [[proleptic Gregorian calendar]].

== References ==

=== Citations ===
{{Reflist|30em}}

=== Sources ===
* {{cite book |editor1-last = Amitai-Preiss |editor1-first = Reuven |editor2-last = Morgan |editor2-first = David O. |title = The Mongol Empire and Its Legacy |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=3NZpbDOSAcQC&pg=PA12 |year = 2000 |publisher = BRILL |isbn = 90-04-11946-9 |ref = harv}}
* {{cite book |last = Atwood |first = Christopher Pratt |title = Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=I9dzQgAACAAJ |year = 2004 |publisher = Facts On File |isbn = 978-0-8160-4671-3 |ref = harv}}
* Chan, Hok-Lam. 1997. "A Recipe to Qubilai Qa'an on Governance: The Case of Chang Te-hui and Li Chih". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 7 (2). Cambridge University Press: 257–83. {{jstor|25183352}}.
* {{cite book |last = Clements |first = Jonathan |authorlink=Jonathan Clements |title = A Brief History of Khubilai Khan |year = 2010 |publisher = Running Press |location=Philadelphia |isbn = 978-0-7624-3987-4}}
* {{cite book |last = Grousset |first = René  |title = The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=CHzGvqRbV_IC |year = 1970 |publisher = Rutgers University Press |isbn = 978-0-8135-1304-1 |ref = harv}}
* {{cite book |last = Man |first = John |authorlink=John Man (author) |title = Genghis Khan: Life, Death and Resurrection |year = 2004 |publisher = Bantam Press |location=London; New York |isbn = 0-593-05044-4 |ref = harv}}
* {{cite book |last = Man |first = John |authorlink=John Man (author) |title = Kublai Khan: The Mongol King Who Remade China |year = 2007 |publisher = Bantam Press |location = London; New York |isbn = 978-0-553-81718-8 |ref = harv}}
* {{cite book |last = Morgan |first = David |authorlink=David Morgan (historian) |title = The Mongols |year = 1986 |publisher = Blackwell Publishers |location=New York |isbn = 0-631-17563-6}}
* {{cite book |last = Rossabi |first = Morris |title = Khubilai Khan: His Life and Times |publisher = University of California Press |year = 1988 |isbn = 0-520-06740-1 |ref = harv}}
* {{cite book |last = Saunders |first = J. J. |title = The History of the Mongol Conquests |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=nFx3OlrBMpQC |orig-year = 1971 |year = 2001 |publisher = University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn = 0-8122-1766-7 |ref = harv}}
* {{cite book |last = Weatherford |first = Jack |title = The History of Money |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=v8oxCs1eWgsC |year = 1997 |publisher = Crown Publishing Group |isbn = 978-0-307-55674-5 |ref = harv}}
* {{cite book |last = Weatherford |first = Jack |title = Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=A8Y9B5uHQcAC |year = 2004 |publisher = Crown/Archetype |location=New York |isbn = 978-0-307-23781-1 |ref = harv}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.galmarley.com/framesets/fs_monetary_history_faqs.htm Inflation under Kublai]
* [http://www.archaeology.org/0301/etc/kamikaze.html Relics of the Kamikaze] ([[Archaeological Institute of America]])

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{{s-ttl|title=[[Great Khan]] of the [[Mongol Empire]]<br />(Nominal due to the [[division of the Mongol Empire|empire's division]])|years=1260–1294}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Temür Khan|Temür Khan, Emperor Chengzong]]|rows=3}}
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{{s-ttl|title=[[List of emperors of the Yuan dynasty|Emperor of the Yuan dynasty]]|years=1271–1294}}
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{{s-bef|before=[[Emperor Bing of Song|Emperor Bing of Song dynasty]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Emperor of China]]|years=1279–1294}}
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{{Khagans of Mongol Empire}}
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[[Category:Kublai Khan| ]]
[[Category:1215 births]]
[[Category:1294 deaths]]
[[Category:Buddhist monarchs]]
[[Category:Yuan dynasty emperors]]
[[Category:Great Khans of the Mongol Empire]]
[[Category:13th-century Mongol rulers]]
[[Category:Borjigin]]
[[Category:Descendants of Genghis Khan]]