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{{About|the Mongolian emperor}}
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{{Infobox royalty
| title       = 1st [[Khagan|Great Khagan]] of the [[Mongol Empire]]<br>(Supreme [[Khan (title)|Khan]] of the [[Mongols]])<br>[[King of Kings]]
| image       = YuanEmperorAlbumGenghisPortrait.jpg
| caption     = Genghis Khan as portrayed in a 14th-century [[Yuan era]] album, the original version was in black and white. Original size is 47 cm wide and 59.4 cm high. Paint and ink on silk. Now located in the [[National Palace Museum]], [[Taipei]], [[Taiwan]].
| reign       = Spring 1206 – August 18, 1227
| coronation  = Spring 1206 in a [[kurultai]] at the [[Onon River]], [[Mongolia]]
| full name   = [[File:Cinggis qagan.svg|right|26px]]Genghis Khan <br>[[Mongolian Cyrillic alphabet|Mongol]]: Чингис хаан <br>''Chinggis Khaan''<br>[[Mongol script]] (right): <br>''Chinggis Khagan''{{refn|{{zh|t=成吉思汗|w=Ch'eng<sup>2</sup>-chi<sup>2</sup>-szu<sup>1</sup> Han<sup>4</sup>|p=Chéngjísī Hán|first=t}}|group="note"}}
| birth_name = Temüjin{{refn|{{IPAc-en|t|ə|ˈ|m|uː|dʒ|ɪ|n}}; <br>{{lang-mn|Тэмүжин}} ''Temüjin'' {{IPA-mn|tʰemutʃiŋ||Temujin.ogg}}; <br>{{lang-xng|''Temüjin''}};<ref>{{cite journal |year=1959 |title= Central Asiatic Journal|journal=Central Asiatic Journal |volume=5 |page=239 |publisher=O. Harrassowitz |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PjjjAAAAMAAJ |accessdate=July 29, 2011 }}</ref> <br>{{zh|t=鐵木真|s=铁木真|w=T'ieh<sup>3</sup>-mu<sup>4</sup>-chen<sup>1</sup>|p=Tiěmùzhēn|first=t}}|group="note"}}
| successor    = [[Ögedei Khan]]
| spouse       = [[Börte|Börte Üjin Khatun]]<br>Kunju Khatun<br>[[Khulan (wife of Genghis Khan)|Khulan Khatun]]<br>[[Yesugen|Yesugen Khatun]]<br>[[Yesui|Yesulun Khatun]]<br>Isukhan Khatun<br>Gunju Khatun<br>Abika Khatun<br>Gurbasu Khatun<br>Chaga Khatun<br>Moge Khatun
| issue        = [[Jochi]]<br>[[Chagatai Khan|Chagatai]]<br>[[Ögedei Khan|Ögedei]]<br>[[Tolui]]<br>Others
| house        = [[Borjigin]]
| father       = [[Yesügei]]
| mother       = [[Hoelun]]
| birth_date   = likely 1162<ref name="birth"/>
| birth_place  = [[Khentii Mountains]], Mongolia
| death_date   = August 18, 1227<ref>{{cite book|first=Paul|last=Ratchnevsky|title=Genghis Khan: His Life and Legacy|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|year=1991|isbn= 0-631-16785-4|page=142|quote=It is possible, however, to say with certainty that Genghis Khan died in August 1227; only in specifying the actual day of his death do our sources disagree.}}</ref> (aged {{circa|65}})
}}

'''Genghis Khan'''{{refn|While his name is most commonly rendered as "Genghis" in English, historians of the Mongol empire generally prefer the spelling "Chinggis", which more closely approximates the name's correct pronunciation.<ref>{{cite book |last=Morgan |first=David |title=The Mongols|edition=2 |year=2007|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|page=186|isbn=978-1-4051-3539-9}}</ref>|group="note"}} ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|dʒ|ɛ|ŋ|ɡ|ɪ|s|_|ˈ|k|ɑː|n}}, usually pronounced {{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɡ|ɛ|ŋ|ɡ|ɪ|s|_|ˈ|k|ɑː|n}};<ref>[[American Heritage Dictionary]].</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |year=2004 |title=Genghis Khan |encyclopedia=Webster's New World College Dictionary |publisher=Wiley Publishing |url=http://www.yourdictionary.com/genghis-khan |accessdate=July 29, 2011 }}</ref> {{lang-mn|Чингис хаан, ''Çingis hán''}}; {{IPA-mn|t͡ʃʰiŋɡɪs xaːŋ| Mongol:|GenghisKhan01.ogg}}, c. 1162{{spaced ndash}} August 18, 1227), born '''Temüjin''', was the founder and [[Khagan|Great Khan]] (Emperor) of the [[Mongol Empire]], which became the [[World's largest empires|largest contiguous empire]] in history after his death.

He came to power by uniting many of the [[nomadic tribe]]s of [[Northeast Asia]]. After founding the Empire and being proclaimed "Genghis Khan", he started the [[Mongol invasions]] that [[Mongol invasions and conquests|conquered]] most of [[Eurasia]]. Campaigns initiated in his lifetime include those against the [[Mongol conquest of the Qara Khitai|Qara Khitai]], [[Caucasus]], and [[Mongol invasion of Khwarezmia|Khwarazmian]], [[Mongol conquest of Western Xia|Western Xia]] and [[Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty|Jin]] dynasties. These campaigns were often accompanied by large-scale massacres of the civilian populations – especially in the Khwarazmian and Western Xia controlled lands. By the end of his life, the Mongol Empire occupied a substantial portion of [[Central Asia]] and [[Song dynasty|China]].

Before Genghis Khan died, he assigned [[Ögedei Khan]] as his successor and [[Division of the Mongol Empire|split his empire]] into [[khanate]]s among his sons and grandsons.<ref>{{Cite book |last = Saunders|first = John Joseph|title = History of the Mongol Conquests|year = 2001|publisher = University of Pennsylvania Press|location = Philadelphia|isbn = 0-8122-1766-7|orig-year = First published 1972}}</ref> He died in 1227 after defeating the Western Xia. He was buried in an [[Tomb of Genghis Khan|unmarked grave]] somewhere in Mongolia.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OXTv9a0HZakC&lpg=PA247&dq=tangut%20castrate%20genghis&pg=PA254#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Genghis Khan: Life, Death, and Resurrection|author=John Man|year=2004|publisher=Bantam|edition=reprint, illustrated|pages=254–55|isbn=0-312-36624-8|accessdate=May 17, 2014}}</ref> His descendants extended the Mongol Empire across most of [[Eurasia]] by conquering or creating [[vassal]] states in all of modern-day China, [[Korea]], the [[Caucasus]], Central Asia, and substantial portions of Eastern Europe and [[Southwest Asia]]. Many of these invasions repeated the earlier large-scale slaughters of local populations. As a result, Genghis Khan and his empire have a fearsome reputation in local histories.<ref name="mongolia">Ian Jeffries (2007). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=fcgQ9nX0H3gC&pg=PA5&dq&hl=en#v=onepage&q=&f=false Mongolia: a guide to economic and political developments].'' Taylor & Francis. pp. 5–7. ISBN 0-415-42545-X</ref>

Beyond his military accomplishments, Genghis Khan also advanced the [[Mongol Empire]] in other ways. He decreed the adoption of the [[Old Uyghur alphabet|Uyghur script]] as the Mongol Empire's writing system. He also practiced [[meritocracy]] and encouraged [[religious tolerance]] in the Mongol Empire, and unified the nomadic tribes of Northeast Asia. Present-day [[Mongols|Mongolians]] regard him as the founding father of [[Mongolia]].<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=January 26, 2010 |url=http://www.accd.edu/sac/history/keller/mongols/empsub1.html |title=Genghis Khan |publisher=[[North Georgia College and State University]] |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100306053246/http://www.accd.edu:80/sac/history/keller/mongols/empsub1.html |archivedate=March 6, 2010 |df=mdy }}</ref>

Although known for the brutality of his campaigns<ref>{{cite web|title=The World's Richest Terror Army|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p02rhxgr|publisher=BBC|author1=Peter Taylor|authorlink1=Peter Taylor (journalist)|date=May 27, 2015|quote=Beheadings and mass slaughter are the hallmark of [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant|IS]] – whole villages massacred, women cast into slavery. But this butchery is not random. It is callous and calculated, as former British intelligence officer [[Alastair Crooke]] points out: 'They in fact in some ways copy Genghis Khan and the Mongol approach to military conquest. You create an absolute fear deliberately in your enemies, and the first time you come to a village you kill everyone, the dogs, the cats, everything. Destroy it down to the ground.'}}</ref> and considered by many to have been a [[Genocide|genocidal]] ruler, Genghis Khan is also credited with bringing the [[Silk Road]] under one cohesive political environment. This brought communication and trade from Northeast Asia into [[Muslim]] Southwest Asia and Christian [[Europe]], thus expanding the horizons of all three cultural areas.

==Early life==

===Lineage===
{{Main article|Family tree of Genghis Khan}}
Temüjin was related on his father's side to [[Khabul Khan]], [[Ambaghai]], and [[Hotula Khan]], who had headed the [[Khamag Mongol|Khamag Mongol confederation]] and were descendants of [[Bodonchar Munkhag]] (c. 900). When the [[Jurchen people|Jurchen]] [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin dynasty]] switched support from the Mongols to the [[Tatar confederation|Tatar]]s in 1161, they destroyed [[Khabul Khan]].<ref>{{cite book|first=Paul|last=Ratchnevsky|title=Genghis Khan: His Life and Legacy|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|year=1991|isbn= 0-631-16785-4|pages=9–10}}</ref>{{failed verification|date=March 2017}}

Temüjin's father, [[Yesügei]] (leader of the [[Borjigin]] clan and nephew to [[Ambaghai]] and [[Hotula Khan]]), emerged as the head of the ruling Mongol clan. This position was contested by the rival [[Tayichiud|Tayichi'ud]] clan, who descended directly from [[Ambaghai]]. When the Tatars grew too powerful after 1161, the [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin]] switched their support from the [[Tatars]] to the [[Keraites]].

===Birth===
[[File:onon.jpg|thumb|250px|Autumn at the [[Onon River]], Mongolia, the region where Temüjin was born and grew up.]]
Little is known about Temüjin's early life, due to the lack of contemporary written records. The few sources that give insight into this period often contradict.

Temüjin's name was derived from the Mongol word ''temür'' meaning "of iron", while ''jin'' denotes agency<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.behindthename.com/name/temujin|title=Meaning, origin and history of the name Temujin|last=Campbell|first=Mike|website=Behind the Name|access-date=March 29, 2016}}</ref> thus ''temüjin'' means "blacksmith".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Glasse|first1=Cyril|last2=Smith|first2=Huston|title=The New Encyclopedia of Islam|isbn=978-0-7591-0190-6|page=313|url=https://books.google.com/?id=focLrox-frUC&pg=PA313&lpg=PA313&dq=Tem%C3%BCjin+means+%22blacksmith%22.#v=onepage&q=Tem%C3%BCjin%20means%20%22blacksmith%22.&f=false|date=January 2003}}</ref>

Temüjin was probably born in 1162<ref name="birth">Rashid al-Din asserts that Genghis Khan was born in 1155, while the ''Yuanshi'' (元史, ''History of the [[Yuan dynasty]]'') records his year of birth as 1162.  According to Ratchnevsky, accepting a birth in 1155 would render Genghis Khan a father at the age of 30 and would imply that he personally commanded the expedition against the [[Tangut people|Tanguts]] at the age of 72.  Also, according to the ''[[Altan Tobci]],'' Genghis Khan's sister, Temülin, was nine years younger than he; but the ''Secret History'' relates that Temülin was an infant during the attack by the [[Merkits]], during which Genghis Khan would have been 18, had he been born in 1155.  Zhao Hong reports in his travelogue that the Mongols he questioned did not know and had never known their ages.</ref> in [[Delüün Boldog]], near the mountain [[Burkhan Khaldun]] and the rivers [[Onon River|Onon]] and [[Kherlen River|Kherlen]] in modern-day northern [[Mongolia]], close to the current capital [[Ulaanbaatar]]. ''[[The Secret History of the Mongols]]'' reports that Temüjin was born grasping a blood clot in his fist, a traditional sign that he was destined to become a great leader. He was the second son of his father [[Yesügei]] who was a [[List of medieval Mongolian tribes and clans|Kiyad]] chief prominent in the [[Khamag Mongol]] confederation and an ally of [[Toghrul]] of the Keraite tribe.<ref>{{cite book|author=Morgan, David|title=The Mongols (Peoples of Europe)|year=1990|page=58}}</ref> Temüjin was the first son of his mother [[Hoelun]]. According to the ''Secret History'', Temüjin was named after the [[Tatars|Tatar]] chief [[Temüjin-üge]] whom his father had just captured.

[[Yesugei|Yesukhei's]] clan was [[Borjigin]] (Боржигин), and [[Hoelun]] was from the [[Olkhunut]] sub-lineage of the [[Khongirad]] tribe.<ref>Guida Myrl Jackson-Laufer, Guida M. Jackson, ''Encyclopedia of traditional epics,'' p. 527</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Kahn |first=Paul (adaptor) |title=Secret History of the Mongols: The Origin of Chingis Khan (expanded edition): An Adaptation of the Yüan chʾao pi shih, Based Primarily on the English Translation by [[Francis Woodman Cleaves]] |series=Asian Culture Series |year=1998 |publisher=Cheng & Tsui Co. |location=Boston |isbn=0-88727-299-1|page=192}}</ref> Like other tribes, they were [[nomad]]s. Temüjin's noble background made it easier for him to solicit help from and eventually consolidate the other Mongol tribes.{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}}

===Early life and family===
Temüjin had three brothers [[Hasar]], [[Hachiun]], and [[Temüge]], one sister [[Temülen]], and two half-brothers [[Behter|Begter]] and [[Belgutei]].  Like many of the [[nomad]]s of Mongolia, Temüjin's early life was difficult. His father [[arranged marriage|arranged a marriage]] for him and delivered him at age nine to the family of his future wife [[Börte]] of the tribe [[Khongirad]]. Temüjin was to live there serving the head of the household Dai Setsen until the [[child marriage|marriageable age]] of 12.

While heading home, his father ran into the neighboring [[Tatars]], who had long been Mongol enemies, and they offered him food that poisoned him. Upon learning this, Temüjin returned home to claim his father's position as chief. But the tribe refused this and abandoned the family, leaving it without protection.

For the next several years, the family lived in poverty, surviving mostly on wild fruits, ox [[Carrion|carcasses]], [[marmot]]s, and other small game killed by Temüjin and his brothers. Temujin's older half-brother [[Behter|Begter]] began to exercise power as the eldest male in the family and would eventually have the right to claim Hoelun (who was not his own mother) as wife.<ref name="books.google.com">{{cite book|last1=Weatherford|first1=Jack|title=Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World|page=23|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5HCaqYbD5t0C&lpg=PR3&dq=the%20Making%20of%20the%20Modern%20World&pg=PA23#v=onepage&q=the%20Making%20of%20the%20Modern%20World&f=false|accessdate=December 16, 2014|isbn=978-0-307-23781-1|date=March 22, 2005}}</ref> Temujin's resentment erupted during one hunting excursion when Temüjin and his brother [[Qasar|Khasar]] killed [[Behter|Begter]].<ref name="books.google.com"/>

In a raid around 1177, Temujin was captured by his father's former allies, the [[Tayichi'ud]], and enslaved, reportedly with a [[cangue]] (a sort of portable stocks). With the help of a sympathetic guard, he escaped from the [[Yurt|ger]] (yurt) at night by hiding in a river crevice.{{Citation needed|date=September 2010}} The escape earned Temüjin a reputation. Soon, [[Jelme]] and [[Bo'orchu]] joined forces with him. They and the guard's son [[Chilaun]] eventually became generals of Genghis Khan.

At this time, none of the tribal [[confederation]]s of Mongolia were united politically, and arranged marriages were often used to solidify temporary alliances. Temüjin grew up observing the tough political climate, which included [[Endemic warfare|tribal warfare]], [[theft|thievery]], [[Raid (military)|raids]], corruption, and revenge between confederations, compounded by interference from abroad such as from China to the south. Temüjin's mother Hoelun taught him many lessons, especially the need for strong [[military alliance|alliance]]s to ensure stability in Mongolia.

====Marriage to Börte====
As previously arranged by his father, Temüjin married [[Börte]] of the [[Onggirat]] tribe when he was around 16 in order to cement alliances between their two tribes. Soon after the marriage, Börte was kidnapped by the [[Merkit]]s and reportedly given away as a wife. Temüjin rescued her with the help of his friend and future rival, [[Jamukha]], and his protector, [[Toghrul]] of the [[Keraites|Keraite]] tribe. She gave birth to a son, [[Jochi]] (1185–1226), nine months later, clouding the issue of his parentage. Despite speculation over Jochi, Börte would be Temüjin's only empress, though he did follow tradition by taking several [[Morganatic marriage|morganatic]] wives.<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=May 20, 2008 |url=http://www.biography.com/search/article.do?id=9308634 |archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20090716141323/http://www.biography.com/search/article.do?id=9308634 |dead-url=yes |archive-date=July 16, 2009 |title=Genghis Khan Biography (1162/7) |publisher=[[The Biography Channel]] }}</ref>

[[Börte]] had three more sons, [[Chagatai Khan|Chagatai]] (1187–1241), [[Ögedei Khan|Ögedei]] (1189–1241), and [[Tolui]] (1190–1232). Genghis Khan also had many other children with his other wives, but they were excluded from succession. The names of at least six daughters are known, and while they played significant roles behind the scenes during his lifetime, no documents have survived that definitively provide the number or names of daughters born to the consorts of Genghis Khan.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Weatherford|first= Jack| authorlink =Jack Weatherford| title= [[The Secret History of the Mongol Queens: How the Daughters of Genghis Khan Rescued His Empire]] |year=2010 |publisher=Crown Publishing Group |place= New York |pages= xiii, 2   }}</ref>

==Uniting the Mongol confederations==
{{See also|Proto-Mongols|List of medieval Mongol tribes and clans}}
[[File:Mongolia XI.jpg|thumb|The locations of the Mongolian tribes during the Khitan [[Liao dynasty]] (907–1125)]]
In the early 13th century, the Central Asian plateau north of China was divided into several tribes of [[confederation]], including [[Naimans]], [[Merkit]]s, [[Tatar]]s, [[Khamag Mongol]]s, and [[Keraites]], that were all prominent and often unfriendly toward each other, as evidenced by random raids, revenge attacks, and [[Looting|plundering]].

===Early attempts at power===
Temüjin began his ascent to power by offering himself as an ally (or, according to other sources, a [[vassal]]) to his father's ''anda'' (sworn brother or [[blood brother]]) [[Toghrul]], who was [[Khan (title)|Khan]] of the [[Keraites]], and is better known by the Chinese title "[[Wang Khan]]", which the [[Jurchen people|Jurchen]] [[Jin dynasty (1115-1234)|Jin dynasty]] granted him in 1197. This relationship was first reinforced when [[Börte]] was captured by the Merkits. Temüjin turned to Toghrul for support, and Toghrul offered 20,000 of his Keraite warriors and suggested that Temüjin involve his childhood friend [[Jamukha]], who had himself become Khan of his own tribe, the [[Jadaran]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Grousset, Rene|title=Conqueror of the World: The Life of Chingis-khagan|location=New York|publisher=[[Viking Press]]|year=1944}}</ref>

Although the campaign recaptured [[Börte]] and utterly defeated the [[Merkit]]s, it also paved the way for the split between Temüjin and Jamukha. Before this, they were blood brothers (''anda'') vowing to remain eternally faithful.

===Rift with Jamukha and defeat at Dalan Balzhut===
As [[Jamukha]] and Temüjin drifted apart in their friendship, each began consolidating power, and they became rivals. Jamukha supported the traditional [[Mongolian nobility|Mongolian aristocracy]], while Temüjin followed a [[Meritocracy|meritocratic]] method, and attracted a broader range and lower class of followers.<ref>Hildinger 1997, pg. 113.</ref> His earlier defeat of the Merkits, and a proclamation by the [[Shamanism|shaman]] [[Kokochu]] that the [[Tengrism|Eternal Blue Sky]] had set aside the world for Temüjin, Temüjin began rising to power.<ref name=Hildinger>Hildinger 1997, pg. 114</ref> In 1186, Temüjin was elected khan of the [[Mongols]]. Threatened by this rise, Jamukha attacked Temujin in 1187 with an army of 30,000 troops. Temüjin gathered his followers to defend against the attack, but was decisively beaten in the Battle of Dalan Balzhut.<ref name=Hildinger /><ref name=Lane1>Lane 2004, pg. xxvii</ref> However, Jamukha horrified and alienated potential followers by boiling 70 young male captives alive in cauldrons.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Jack|first1=Weatherford|title=Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World|date=2005|publisher=Crown|isbn=978-0-307-23781-1}}<!--|accessdate=January 28, 2015--></ref> Toghrul, as Temüjin's patron, was exiled to the [[Qara Khitai]].<ref name=Lane2>Lane 2004, pg. 23</ref> The life of Temüjin for the next 10 years is unclear, as historical records are mostly silent on that period.<ref name=Lane2 />

===Return to power===
Around the year 1197, the [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin]] initiated an attack against their formal vassal, the [[Tatars]], with help from the [[Keraites]] and [[Mongols]]. Temüjin commanded part of this attack, and after victory, he and Toghrul were restored by the Jin to positions of power.<ref name=Lane2 /> The Jin bestowed Toghrul with the honorable title of Ong Khan, and Temüjin with a lesser title of ''j'aut quri''.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Biran|first1=Michal|title=Genghis Khan|date=2012|publisher=[[Oneworld Publications]]|location=London|isbn=978-1-78074-204-5|page=35|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ndPZAQAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false}}</ref>

Around 1200, the main rivals of the [[Khamag Mongol|Mongol confederation]] (traditionally the "Mongols") were the [[Naimans]] to the west, the [[Merkit]]s to the north, the [[Tanguts]] to the south, and the [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin]] to the east.

[[File:Serven Khaalga Jurchen inscription.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Jurchen script|Jurchen]] inscription (1196) in Mongolia relating to Genghis Khan's alliance with the Jin against the Tatars.]]

In his rule and his conquest of rival tribes, Temüjin broke with Mongol tradition in a few crucial ways. He delegated authority based on merit and loyalty, rather than family ties.<ref name="Weatherford, Jack 2004 44">{{cite book|author = Weatherford, Jack|title = [[Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World]]|page = 44|publisher = [[Three Rivers Press]]|year = 2004|isbn = 0-609-80964-4|chapter = 2: Tale of Three Rivers}}</ref> As an incentive for absolute obedience and the [[Yassa]] code of law, Temüjin promised civilians and soldiers wealth from future war spoils. When he defeated rival tribes, he did not drive away their soldiers and abandon their civilians. Instead, he took the conquered tribe under his protection and integrated its members into his own tribe. He would even have his mother adopt orphans from the conquered tribe, bringing them into his family. These political innovations inspired great loyalty among the conquered people, making Temüjin stronger with each victory.<ref name="Weatherford, Jack 2004 44"/>

===Rift with Toghrul===
[[Senggum]], son of Toghrul (Wang Khan), envied Temüjin's growing power and affinity with his father. He allegedly planned to assassinate Temüjin. Although Toghrul was allegedly saved on multiple occasions by Temüjin, he gave in to his son<ref name="resurrection">{{cite book|author=Man, John|title=Genghis Khan: Life, Death and Resurrection|location=London; New York|publisher=[[Bantam Press]]|year=2004|isbn= 0-593-05044-4}}</ref> and became uncooperative with Temüjin. Temüjin learned of Senggum's intentions and eventually defeated him and his loyalists.

[[File:Djengiz Khân et Toghril Ong Khan.jpeg|thumb|left|250px|Genghis Khan and Toghrul Khan, illustration from a 15th-century [[Jami' al-tawarikh]] manuscript]]

One of the later ruptures between Temüjin and Toghrul was Toghrul's refusal to give his daughter in marriage to [[Jochi]], Temüjin's first son. This was disrespectful in Mongolian culture and led to a war. Toghrul allied with [[Jamukha]], who already opposed Temüjin's forces. However, the dispute between Toghrul and Jamukha, plus the desertion of a number of their allies to Temüjin, led to Toghrul's defeat. Jamukha escaped during the conflict. This defeat was a catalyst for the fall and eventual dissolution of the [[Keraites|Keraite]] tribe.

The next direct threat to Temüjin was the [[Naimans]] (Naiman Mongols), with whom Jamukha and his followers took refuge. The [[Naimans]] did not surrender, although enough sectors again voluntarily sided with Temüjin. In 1201, a [[kurultai|khuruldai]] elected [[Jamukha]] as [[Khan (title)|Gür Khan]], "universal ruler", a title used by the rulers of the [[Qara Khitai]]. Jamukha's assumption of this title was the final breach with Temüjin, and Jamukha formed a coalition of tribes to oppose him. Before the conflict, several generals abandoned Jamukha, including [[Subutai]], [[Jelme|Jelme's]] well-known younger brother. After several battles, Jamukha was turned over to Temüjin by his own men in 1206.

According to the ''Secret History'', Temüjin again offered his friendship to [[Jamukha]]. Temüjin had killed the men who betrayed Jamukha, stating that he did not want disloyal men in his army. Jamukha refused the offer, saying that there can only be one sun in the sky, and he asked for a noble death. The custom was to die without spilling blood, specifically by having one's back broken. Jamukha requested this form of death, although he was known to have boiled his opponents' generals alive.

===Sole ruler of the Mongol plains (1206)===
[[File:Genghis Khan's enthronement in 1206.jpg|thumb|250px|Genghis Khan proclaimed Khagan of all Mongols. Illustration from a 15th-century [[Jami' al-tawarikh]] manuscript.]]
[[File:Mongol Empire c.1207.png|thumb|Mongol Empire circa 1207]]
The part of the [[Merkit]] clan that sided with the [[Naimans]] were defeated by [[Subutai]], who was by then a member of Temüjin's personal guard and later became one of the most successful [[commander]]s of Genghis Khan. The Naimans' defeat left Temüjin as the sole ruler of the [[Eurasian Steppe|Mongol steppe]] – all the prominent confederations fell or united under his Mongol confederation.

Accounts of Genghis Khan's life are marked by claims of a series of betrayals and conspiracies. These include rifts with his early allies such as Jamukha (who also wanted to be a ruler of Mongol tribes) and Wang Khan (his and his father's ally), his son [[Jochi]], and problems with the most important [[shaman]], who allegedly tried to drive a wedge between him and his loyal brother [[Qasar|Khasar]]. His [[military strategy|military strategies]] showed a deep interest in gathering [[intelligence (information gathering)|intelligence]] and understanding the [[motivation]]s of his rivals, exemplified by his extensive spy network and [[Yam (route)|Yam]] route systems. He seemed to be a quick student, adopting new technologies and ideas that he encountered, such as [[siege warfare]] from the [[Military history of China (pre-1911)|Chinese]]. He was also ruthless, demonstrated by his tactic of [[measuring against the linchpin]], used against the tribes led by Jamukha.

As a result, by 1206, Temüjin had managed to unite or subdue the [[Merkit]]s, [[Naimans]], [[Mongols]], Keraites, [[Tatars]], [[Uyghur people|Uyghurs]], and other disparate smaller tribes under his rule. This was a monumental feat. It resulted in peace between previously warring tribes, and a single political and military force. The union became known as the Mongols. At a ''[[Kurultai|Khuruldai]]'', a council of Mongol chiefs, Temüjin was acknowledged as [[Khan (title)|Khan]] of the consolidated tribes and took the new [[#Name and title|title]] "Genghis Khan". The title [[Khagan]] was conferred posthumously by his son and successor Ögedei who took the title for himself (as he was also to be posthumously declared the founder of the [[Yuan dynasty]]).

== Religion ==
Genghis Khan was a [[tengrist]], but was [[Religious tolerance|religiously tolerant]] and interested in learning philosophical and moral lessons from other religions. He consulted [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] monks, [[Islam|Muslims]], [[Christianity|Christian]] missionaries, and the [[Taoism|Taoist]] monk [[Qiu Chuji]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Teachings and Practices of the Early Quanzhen Taoist Masters |first=Stephen |last=Eskildsen |year=2004 |publisher=[[SUNY Press]] |page=17 |isbn=978-0-7914-6045-0}}</ref>

Genghis Khan, and the following [[Yuan dynasty|Yuan]] Emperors forbade Islamic practices like [[Halal|Halal butchering]], forcing Mongol methods of butchering animals on [[Muslim]]s, and other restrictive degrees continued. Muslims had to slaughter sheep in secret.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=hUEswLE4SWUC&pg=PA24&dq=yuan+dynasty+halal&q=yuan+dynasty+halal#v=onepage&q=chinggis%20khan%20forbidden%20halal&f=false|title=China's Muslim Hui community: migration, settlement and sects|author=Michael Dillon|year=1999|publisher=Curzon Press|location=Richmond|page=24|isbn=0-7007-1026-4|accessdate=June 28, 2010}}</ref> Genghis Khan directly called Muslims and [[Jews]] "[[Slavery|slaves]]", and demanded that they follow the Mongol method of eating rather than the halal method. [[Circumcision]] was also forbidden. Jews were also affected, and forbidden by the Mongols to eat [[Kosher]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=N7_4Gr9Q438C&pg=PA230&dq=yuan+dynasty+halal&q=yuan+dynasty+halal#v=onepage&q=%20halal%20chinggis%20khan%20you%20are%20our%20slaves%20&f=false|title=Buddhism and Islam on the Silk Road|author=Johan Elverskog|year=2010|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|edition=illustrated|location=|page=228|isbn=0-8122-4237-8|accessdate=June 28, 2010}}</ref>

{{quote|Among all the [subject] alien peoples only the Hui-hui say "we do not eat Mongol food". [Cinggis Qa'an replied:] "By the aid of heaven we have pacified you; you are our slaves. Yet you do not eat our food or drink. How can this be right?" He thereupon made them eat. "If you slaughter sheep, you will be considered guilty of a crime." He issued a regulation to that effect&nbsp;... [In 1279/1280 under Qubilai] all the Muslims say: "if someone else slaughters [the animal] we do not eat". Because the poor people are upset by this, from now on, Musuluman [Muslim] Huihui and Zhuhu [Jewish] Huihui, no matter who kills [the animal] will eat [it] and must cease slaughtering sheep themselves, and cease the rite of circumcision.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.islamicpopulation.com/asia/China/China_integration%20of%20religious%20minority.pdf|title=The Integration of Religious Minorities in China: The Case of Chinese Muslims|author=Donald Daniel Leslie|year=1998|page=12|publisher=The Fifty-ninth George Ernest Morrison Lecture in Ethnology|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101217112014/http://islamicpopulation.com/asia/China/China_integration%20of%20religious%20minority.pdf |archive-date=December 17, 2010 |access-date=July 17, 2016 |dead-url=yes}}.</ref>
}}

==Military campaigns==
{{See also|Mongol invasions and conquests}}

===Western Xia Dynasty===
{{Main article|Mongol conquest of Western Xia}}During the 1206 political rise of Genghis Khan, the Mongol Empire created by Genghis Khan and his allies shared its western borders with the [[Western Xia|Western Xia dynasty]] of the [[Tangut people|Tangut]]s. To the east and south was the [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin dynasty]], founded by the [[Manchu]]rian [[Jurchen people|Jurchens]], who ruled northern China as well as being the traditional overlords of the Mongolian tribes for centuries.[[File:Bataille entre mongols & chinois (1211).jpeg|thumb|Battle between Mongol warriors and the [[China|Chinese]].]]
[[File:Siège de Beijing (1213-1214).jpeg|thumb|Genghis Khan entering [[Beijing]].]]

Genghis Khan organized his people, army, and his state to first prepare for war with Western Xia, or Xi Xia, which was close to the Mongolian lands. He correctly believed that the more powerful young ruler of the Jin dynasty would not come to the aid of Xi Xia. When the Tanguts requested help from the Jin dynasty, they were refused.<ref name="resurrection" /> Despite initial difficulties in capturing its well-defended cities, Genghis Khan managed to force the emperor of Xi Xia to submit to vassal status.

===Jin dynasty===
{{Main article|Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty}}
In 1211, after the conquest of Western Xia, Genghis Khan planned again to conquer the [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin dynasty]]. Wanyan Jiujin, the field commander of the Jin army, made a tactical mistake in not attacking the Mongols at the first opportunity. Instead, the Jin commander sent a messenger, [[Shimo Ming'an|Ming'an]], to the Mongol side, who defected and told the Mongols that the Jin army was waiting on the other side of the pass. At [[Battle of Yehuling|this engagement fought at Yehuling]], the Mongols massacred hundreds of thousands of Jin troops. <!--Decades later, when the [[Taoism|Taoist]] sage [[Qiu Chuji]] was passing through this pass to meet Genghis Khan, he was stunned to still see the bones of so many people scattered in the pass. On his way back, he camped close to this pass for three days and prayed for the departed souls. --> In 1215, Genghis besieged, captured, and sacked the Jin capital of Zhongdu (modern-day [[Beijing]]). This forced the Jin ruler, [[Emperor Xuanzong of Jin|Emperor Xuanzong]], to move his capital south to [[Kaifeng]], abandoning the northern half of his empire to the Mongols. Between 1232 and 1233, [[Mongol siege of Kaifeng|Kaifeng fell to the Mongols]] under the reign of Genghis's third son, Ögedei Khan. The Jin dynasty collapsed in 1234, after the [[siege of Caizhou]].

===Qara Khitai===
{{Main article|Qara Khitai}}

[[Kuchlug]], the deposed [[Khan (title)|Khan]] of the [[Naimans|Naiman]] confederation that Temüjin defeated and folded into his Mongol Empire, fled west and usurped the [[khanate]] of [[Qara Khitai]] (also known as the Western Liao, as it was originally established as remnants of the [[Liao dynasty]]). Genghis Khan decided to conquer the Qara Khitai and defeat Kuchlug, possibly to take him out of power. By this time the Mongol army was exhausted from ten years of continuous campaigning in China against the Western Xia and Jin dynasty. Therefore, Genghis sent only two [[Tumen (unit)|tumen]] (20,000 soldiers) against Kuchlug, under his younger general, [[Jebe]], known as "The Arrow".

With such a small force, the invading Mongols were forced to change strategies and resort to inciting internal revolt among Kuchlug's supporters, leaving the Qara Khitai more vulnerable to Mongol conquest. As a result, Kuchlug's army was defeated west of [[Kashgar]]. Kuchlug fled again, but was soon hunted down by Jebe's army and executed. By 1218, as a result of defeat of Qara Khitai, the Mongol Empire and its control extended as far west as [[Lake Balkhash]], which bordered  [[Khwarezmia|Khwarazmia]], a Muslim state that reached the [[Caspian Sea]] to the west and [[Persian Gulf]] and the [[Arabian Sea]] to the south.

===Khwarazmian Empire===
{{Main article|Mongol conquest of Khwarezmia}}

In the early 13th century, the [[Khwarazmian dynasty]] was governed by [[Shah]] [[Muhammad II of Khwarezm|Ala ad-Din Muhammad]]. Genghis Khan saw the potential advantage in Khwarazmia as a commercial trading partner using the [[Silk Road]], and he initially sent a 500-man [[camel train|caravan]] to establish official trade ties with the empire. However, [[Inalchuq]], the governor of the Khwarazmian city of [[Otrar]], attacked the caravan, claiming that the caravan contained spies and therefore was a conspiracy against Khwarazmia. The situation became further complicated because the governor later refused to make repayments for the looting of the caravans and handing over the perpetrators. Genghis Khan then sent again a second group of three ambassadors (two Mongols and a Muslim) to meet the Shah himself instead of the governor Inalchuq. The [[Shah]] had all the men shaved and the Muslim [[decapitation|beheaded]] and sent his head back with the two remaining ambassadors. This was seen as an affront and insult to Genghis Khan. Outraged, Genghis Khan planned one of his largest invasion campaigns by organizing together around 100,000 soldiers (10 [[Tumen (unit)|tumen]]s), his most capable generals and some of his sons. He left a commander and number of troops in China, designated his successors to be his family members and likely appointed [[Ögedei]] to be his immediate successor and then went out to Khwarazmia.

[[File:During the battle of Indus.jpg|thumb|left|Genghis Khan watches in amazement as the [[Khwarezm]]i [[Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu|Jalal ad-Din]] prepares to ford the [[Indus]].]]

The Mongol army under Genghis Khan, generals and his sons crossed the [[Tian Shan|Tien Shan]] mountains by entering the area controlled by the [[Khwarezmian Empire|Khwarazmian Empire]]. After compiling intelligence from many sources Genghis Khan carefully prepared his army, which was divided into three groups. His son [[Jochi]] led the first division into the northeast of Khwarazmia. The second division under [[Jebe]] marched secretly to the southeast part of Khwarazmia to form, with the first division, a [[Pincer movement|pincer attack]] on [[Samarkand]]. The third division under Genghis Khan and [[Tolui]] marched to the northwest and attacked Khwarazmia from that direction.

The Shah's army was split by diverse internecine feuds and by the Shah's decision to divide his army into small groups concentrated in various cities. This fragmentation was decisive in Khwarazmia's defeats, as it allowed the Mongols, although exhausted from the long journey, to immediately set about defeating small fractions of the Khwarazmian forces instead of facing a unified defense. The Mongol army quickly seized the town of [[Otrar]], relying on superior strategy and tactics. Genghis Khan ordered the wholesale massacre of many of the civilians, enslaved the rest of the population and executed Inalchuq by pouring molten silver into his ears and eyes, as retribution for his actions. Near the end of the battle the Shah fled rather than surrender. Genghis Khan ordered [[Subutai]] and [[Jebe]] to hunt him down, giving them  20,000 men and two years to do this. The Shah died under mysterious circumstances on a small island within his empire.

The Mongols' conquest, even by their own standards, was brutal. After the capital [[Samarkand]] fell, the capital was moved to [[Bukhara]] by the remaining men, while Genghis Khan ordered two of his generals and their forces to completely destroy the remnants of the Khwarazmian Empire, including not only royal buildings, but entire towns, populations, and even vast swaths of farmland.

[[File:Genghis Khan empire-en.svg|400px|thumb|Significant conquests and movements of Genghis Khan and his generals.]]

The Mongols attacked [[Samarkand]] using captured enemies as body shields. After several days only a few remaining soldiers, loyal supporters of the [[Shah]], held out in the citadel. After the fortress fell, Genghis supposedly reneged on his surrender terms and executed every soldier that had taken arms against him at Samarkand. The people of Samarkand were ordered to evacuate and assemble in a plain outside the city, where they were killed and pyramids of severed heads raised as a symbol of victory.<ref name="Juvayni">"[https://faculty.washington.edu/modelski/CAWC.htm Central Asian world cities] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118121401/https://faculty.washington.edu/modelski/CAWC.htm |date=January 18, 2012 }}", University of Washington.</ref> [[Ata-Malik Juvayni]], a high official in the service of the Mongol empire, wrote that in [[Termez]], on the [[Oxus]], "all the people, both men and women, were driven out onto the plain, and divided in accordance with their usual custom, then they were all slain".<ref name="Juvayni"/>

The city of Bukhara was not heavily fortified, with a moat and a single wall, and the citadel typical of Khwarazmian cities. The city leaders opened the gates to the Mongols, though a unit of Turkish defenders held the city's citadel for another twelve days. Survivors from the citadel were executed, artisans and craftsmen were sent back to Mongolia, young men who had not fought were drafted into the Mongolian army and the rest of the population was sent into slavery. As the Mongol soldiers looted the city, a fire broke out, razing most of the city to the ground.<ref name="Morgan">{{cite book
| last       = Morgan
| first      = David
| authorlink = David Morgan (historian)
| title      = The Mongols. The Peoples of Europe
| year       = 1986
| publisher=Blackwell Publishing
| isbn       = 0-631-17563-6
}}</ref> Genghis Khan had the city's surviving population assemble in the main mosque of the town, where he declared that he was the flail of God, sent to punish them for their sins.

Meanwhile, the wealthy trading city of [[Konya-Urgench|Urgench]] was still in the hands of Khwarazmian forces. The assault on Urgench proved to be the most difficult battle of the Mongol invasion and the city fell only after the defenders put up a stout defense, fighting block for block. Mongolian casualties were higher than normal, due to the unaccustomed difficulty of adapting Mongolian tactics to city fighting.

As usual, the artisans were sent back to Mongolia, young women and children were given to the Mongol soldiers as slaves, and the rest of the population was massacred. The Persian scholar [[Ata al-Mulk Juvayni|Juvayni]] states that 50,000 Mongol soldiers were given the task of executing twenty-four Urgench citizens each, which would mean that 1.2&nbsp;million people were killed. The sacking of Urgench is considered one of the [[List of wars and disasters by death toll#Individual battles and sieges|bloodiest massacres in human history]].

In the meantime, Genghis Khan selected his third son [[Ögedei Khan|Ögedei]] as his successor before his army set out, and specified that subsequent Khans should be his direct descendants. Genghis Khan also left [[Muqali]], one of his most trusted generals, as the commander of all Mongol forces in Jin China while he was out battling the Khwarezmid Empire to the west.

===Georgia, Crimea, Kievan Rus and Volga Bulgaria===
{{Main article|Mongol invasions of Georgia and Armenia|Mongol invasion of Volga Bulgaria}}
[[File:Mongol Great Khans coin minted at Balk Afghanistan AH 618 AD 1221.jpg|thumb|Mongol "Great Khans" coin, minted in 1221 at [[Balkh|Balk, Afghanistan]], AH 618]]

After the defeat of the Khwarazmian Empire in 1220, Genghis Khan gathered his forces in [[Iran|Persia]] and [[Armenia]] to return to the Mongolian steppes. Under the suggestion of [[Subutai]], the Mongol army was split into two forces. Genghis Khan led the main army on a raid through [[Afghanistan]] and northern India towards Mongolia, while another 20,000 (two [[Tumen (unit)|tumen]]) contingent marched through the [[Caucasus]] and into Russia under generals [[Jebe]] and Subutai. They pushed deep into [[Armenia]] and [[Azerbaijan]]. The Mongols destroyed the kingdom of [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], sacked the [[Republic of Genoa|Genoese]] trade-fortress of [[Caffa]] in [[Crimea]] and overwintered near the [[Black Sea]]. Heading home, Subutai's forces attacked the allied forces of the [[Cuman]]–[[Kipchak people|Kipchak]]s and the poorly coordinated 80,000 [[Kievan Rus']] troops led by [[Mstislav the Bold]] of [[Halych]] and [[Mstislav III of Kiev]] who went out to stop the Mongols' actions in the area. [[Subutai]] sent emissaries to the [[Slavs|Slavic]] princes calling for a separate peace, but the emissaries were executed. At the [[Battle of Kalka River]] in 1223, Subutai's forces defeated the larger Kievan force. They may have been defeated by the neighbouring [[Volga Bulgars]] at the [[Battle of Samara Bend]]. There is no historical record except a short account by the Arab historian [[Ibn al-Athir]], writing in Mosul some 1100 miles away from the event.<ref name="Chambers31">John Chambers, ''The Devil's Horsemen: The Mongol Invasion of Europe'', Atheneum, 1979. p. 31</ref>  Various historical secondary sources – Morgan, Chambers, Grousset – state that the Mongols actually defeated the Bulgars, Chambers even going so far as to say that the Bulgars had made up stories to tell the (recently crushed) Russians that they had beaten the Mongols and driven them from their territory.<ref name="Chambers31"/> The Russian princes then sued for peace. [[Subutai]] agreed but was in no mood to pardon the princes. As was customary in Mongol society for nobility, the Russian princes were given a bloodless death. Subutai had a large wooden platform constructed on which he ate his meals along with his other generals. Six Russian princes, including [[Mstislav III of Kiev]], were put under this platform and crushed to death.

The Mongols learned from captives of the abundant green pastures beyond the Bulgar territory, allowing for the planning for [[Mongol invasion of Europe|conquest of Hungary and Europe]]. Genghis Khan recalled Subutai back to Mongolia soon afterwards, and Jebe died on the road back to Samarkand. The famous cavalry expedition led by Subutai and Jebe, in which they encircled the entire Caspian Sea defeating all armies in their path, remains unparalleled to this day, and word of the Mongol triumphs began to trickle to other nations, particularly Europe. These two campaigns are generally regarded as reconnaissance campaigns that tried to get the feel of the political and cultural elements of the regions. In 1225 both divisions returned to Mongolia. These invasions added [[Transoxiana]] and [[Iran|Persia]] to an already formidable empire while destroying any resistance along the way. Later under Genghis Khan's grandson [[Batu Khan|Batu]] and the [[Golden Horde]], the Mongols returned to conquer Volga Bulgaria and Kievan Rus' in 1237, concluding the campaign in 1240.

===Western Xia and Jin Dynasty===
{{Main article|Mongol invasion of China}}
[[File:China 11b.jpg|thumb|[[Western Xia|Western Xia dynasty]], [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin/Jurchen dynasty]], [[Song dynasty]] and [[Kingdom of Dali]] in 1142.]]
The vassal emperor of the Tanguts (Western Xia) had earlier refused to take part in the Mongol war against the Khwarezmid Empire. Western Xia and the defeated Jin dynasty formed a coalition to resist the Mongols, counting on the campaign against the Khwarazmians to preclude the Mongols from responding effectively.

In 1226, immediately after returning from the west, Genghis Khan began a retaliatory attack on the Tanguts. His armies quickly took Heisui, [[Ganzhou]], and Suzhou (not the Suzhou in Jiangsu province), and in the autumn he took [[Western Liang (Sixteen Kingdoms)|Xiliang]]-fu{{Disambiguation needed|date=April 2014}}. One of the Tangut generals challenged the Mongols to a battle near [[Helan Mountains]] but was defeated. In November, Genghis laid [[siege]] to the Tangut city [[Lingwu|Lingzhou]] and crossed the [[Yellow River]], defeating the Tangut relief army. According to legend, it was here that Genghis Khan reportedly saw a line of five stars arranged in the sky and interpreted it as an omen of his victory.

In 1227, Genghis Khan's army attacked and destroyed the Tangut capital of Ning Hia and continued to advance, seizing [[Lintiao]]-fu, [[Xining]] province, [[Xindu]]-fu, and [[Deshun]] province in quick succession in the spring. At Deshun, the Tangut general Ma Jianlong put up a fierce resistance for several days and personally led charges against the invaders outside the city gate. Ma Jianlong later died from wounds received from arrows in battle. Genghis Khan, after conquering Deshun, went to [[Liupanshan]] ([[Qingshui County|Qingshui]] County, [[Gansu]] Province) to escape the severe summer. The new Tangut emperor quickly surrendered to the Mongols, and the rest of the Tanguts officially surrendered soon after. Not happy with their betrayal and resistance, Genghis Khan ordered the entire imperial family to be executed, effectively ending the Tangut lineage.

==Succession==
[[File:Genghis Khan and three of his four sons.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Genghis Khan and three of his four sons. Illustration from a 15th-century [[Jami' al-tawarikh]] manuscript]]
The succession of Genghis Khan was already a significant topic during the later years of his reign, as he reached old age. The long running paternity discussion about Genghis's oldest son Jochi was particularly contentious because of the seniority of Jochi among the brothers. According to traditional historical accounts, the issue over Jochi's paternity was voiced most strongly by Chagatai. In ''[[The Secret History of the Mongols]]'', just before the invasion of the [[Khwarezmid Empire]] by Genghis Khan, Chagatai declared before his father and brothers that he would never accept Jochi as Genghis Khan's successor. In response to this tension,<ref>{{harvnb|Ratchnevsky|1991|p=126}}</ref> and possibly for other reasons, Ögedei was appointed as successor.

=== Ögedei ===
{{Main article|Ögedei Khan}}

Ögedei Khan, born Ögedei (c. 1186 – December 11, 1241) was the third son of Genghis Khan and second Great Khan ([[Khagan]]) of the Mongol Empire. He continued the expansion that his father had begun and was a world figure when the Mongol Empire reached its farthest extent west and south during the invasions of Europe and Asia.

===Jochi===
{{Main article|Jochi}}

Genghis Khan was aware of the friction between his sons (particularly between Chagatai and Jochi) and worried of possible conflict between them if he died. He therefore decided to divide his empire among his sons and make all of them Khan in their own right, while appointing one of his sons as his successor. Chagatai was considered unstable due to his temper and rash behavior, because of statements he made that he would not follow Jochi if he were to become his father's successor. [[Tolui]], Genghis Khan's youngest son, was not to be his successor because he was the youngest and in the Mongol culture, youngest sons were not given much responsibility due to their age. If Jochi were to become successor, it was likely that Chagatai would engage in warfare with him and collapse the empire. Therefore, Genghis Khan decided to give the throne to Ögedei. Ögedei was seen by Genghis Khan as dependable in character and relatively stable and down to earth and would be a neutral candidate and might defuse the situation between his brothers.

Jochi died in 1226, during his father's lifetime. Some scholars, notably Ratchnevsky, have commented on the possibility that Jochi was secretly poisoned by an order from Genghis Khan. Rashid al-Din reports that the great Khan sent for his sons in the spring of 1223, and while his brothers heeded the order, Jochi remained in [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]]. Juzjani suggests that the disagreement arose from a quarrel between Jochi and his brothers in the siege of [[Konye-Urgench|Urgench]]. Jochi had attempted to protect Urgench from destruction, as it belonged to territory allocated to him as a fief. He concludes his story with the clearly apocryphal statement by Jochi: "Genghis Khan is mad to have massacred so many people and laid waste so many lands. I would be doing a service if I killed my father when he is hunting, made an alliance with Sultan Muhammad, brought this land to life and gave assistance and support to the Muslims." Juzjani claims that it was in response to hearing of these plans that Genghis Khan ordered his son secretly poisoned; however, as Sultan Muhammad was already dead in 1223, the accuracy of this story is questionable.<ref>{{harvnb|Ratchnevsky|1991|pp=136–7}}</ref>

==Death and burial==
{{Main article|Tomb of Genghis Khan}}
[[File:Genghis khan empire at his death.png|thumb|Mongol Empire in 1227 at Genghis Khan's death]]
Genghis Khan died in August 1227, during the fall of [[Yinchuan]], which is the capital of [[Western Xia]]. The exact cause of his death remains a mystery, and is variously attributed to being killed in action against the Western Xia, illness, falling from his horse, or wounds sustained in hunting or battle.<ref name="china at war">{{cite book|title=Genghis Khan|year=2012|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jhPyvsdymU8C&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false|accessdate=August 21, 2013|editor=Li, Xiaobing|publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]]|location=[[Santa Barbara, California]]|isbn=978-1-59884-415-3|page=139|last = Emmons|first = James B.|work = China at War: An Encyclopedia}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Hart-Davis|first=Adam|title=History: From the Dawn of Civilization to the Present Day|year=2007|publisher=[[Dorling Kindersley]]|location=London|isbn=1-4053-1809-0|page=165|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SCouMhrlDzYC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false|authorlink=Adam Hart-Davis}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Man|first=John|authorlink=John Man (author)|title=Genghis Khan: Life, Death, and Resurrection|year=2004|publisher=[[St. Martin's Press]]|location=New York City|isbn=978-0-312-36624-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OXTv9a0HZakC&printsec=frontcover&vq=death#v=onepage&q&f=false|pages=239–240}}</ref> According to ''[[The Secret History of the Mongols]]'', Genghis Khan fell from his horse while hunting and died because of the injury. He was already old and tired from his journeys. The ''[[Galician–Volhynian Chronicle]]'' alleges he was killed by the Western Xia in battle, while [[Marco Polo]] wrote that he died after the infection of an arrow wound he received during his final campaign.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Genghis Khan|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Yclu5Rw-3WUC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false|last = Lange|first = Brenda|publisher = [[Infobase Publishing]]|year = 2003|isbn = 978-0-7910-7222-6|location = New York City|page = 71}}</ref> Later Mongol chronicles connect Genghis's death with a Western Xia princess taken as war booty. One chronicle from the early 17th century even relates the legend that the princess hid a small dagger and stabbed him, though some Mongol authors have doubted this version and suspected it to be an invention by the rival [[Oirats|Oirads]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Heissig, Walther|title=Die Mongolen. Ein Volk sucht seine Geschichte|location=Düsseldorf|year= 1964|page=124}}</ref>

Years before his death, Genghis Khan asked to be buried without markings, according to the customs of his tribe. After he died, his body was returned to [[Mongolia]] and presumably to his birthplace in [[Khentii Province|Khentii Aimag]], where many assume he is buried somewhere close to the [[Onon River]] and the [[Burkhan Khaldun]] mountain (part of the Kentii mountain range). According to legend, the funeral escort killed anyone and anything across their path to conceal where he was finally buried. The [[Genghis Khan Mausoleum]], constructed many years after his death, is his memorial, but not his burial site.

[[File:GhinggisKhanMausoleum.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Mausoleum of Genghis Khan|Genghis Khan Mausoleum]] in the town of [[Ejin Horo Banner|Ejin Horo Qi]], [[Inner Mongolia]], China]]

In 1939 [[Kuomintang|Chinese Nationalist]] soldiers took the mausoleum from its position at the 'Lord's Enclosure' (Mongolian: ''Edsen Khoroo'') in Mongolia to protect it from Japanese troops. It was taken through Communist-held territory in [[Yan'an]] some {{convert|900|km|mi|abbr=on}} on carts to safety at a Buddhist monastery, the Dongshan Dafo Dian, where it remained for ten years. In 1949, as Communist troops advanced, the Nationalist soldiers moved it another {{convert|200|km|mi|abbr=on}} farther west to the famous Tibetan monastery of [[Kumbum Monastery]] or Ta'er Shi near [[Xining]], which soon fell under Communist control. In early 1954, Genghis Khan's bier and relics were returned to the Lord's Enclosure in Mongolia. By 1956 a new temple was erected there to house them.<ref>Man (2004), pp. 329–333.</ref> In 1968 during the [[Cultural Revolution]], [[Red Guards (People's Republic of China)|Red Guards]] destroyed almost everything of value. The "relics" were remade in the 1970s and a great marble statue of Genghis was completed in 1989.<ref>Man (2004), p. 338.</ref>

On October 6, 2004, a joint Japanese-Mongolian archaeological dig uncovered what is believed to be Genghis Khan's palace in rural Mongolia, which raises the possibility of actually locating the ruler's long-lost burial site.<ref>{{cite news|accessdate=May 20, 2008|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/3723218.stm|title=Palace of Genghis Khan unearthed|publisher=BBC   |date=October 7, 2004}}</ref> Folklore says that a river was diverted over his grave to make it impossible to find (the same manner of burial as the Sumerian King [[Gilgamesh]] of Uruk and [[Atilla the Hun]]). Other tales state that his grave was stampeded over by many horses, and that trees were then planted over the site, and the permafrost also did its part in hiding the burial site.

Genghis Khan left behind an army of more than 129,000 men; 28,000 were given to his various brothers and his sons. Tolui, his youngest son, inherited more than 100,000 men. This force contained the bulk of the elite Mongolian [[cavalry]]. By tradition, the youngest son inherits his father's property. [[Jochi]], [[Chagatai Khan|Chagatai]], [[Ögedei Khan]], and Kulan's son Gelejian received armies of 4,000 men each. His mother and the descendants of his three brothers received 3,000 men each.

==Mongol Empire==
{{Main article|Mongol Empire}}

===Politics and economics===
{{Main article|Organization of the Mongol Empire under Genghis Khan}}
[[File:Mongol Empire map.gif|thumb|300px|[[Mongol Empire]]]]

The Mongol Empire was governed by a civilian and military [[code (law)|code]], called the [[Yassa]], created by Genghis Khan. The Mongol Empire did not emphasize the importance of [[ethnicity]] and [[Race (classification of human beings)|race]] in the administrative realm, instead adopting an approach grounded in [[meritocracy]]. The exception was the role of Genghis Khan and his family. The Mongol Empire was one of the most ethnically and culturally diverse empires in history, as befitted its size. Many of the empire's nomadic inhabitants considered themselves ''Mongols'' in military and civilian life, including [[Mongols]], [[Turkic people|Turks]] and others and included many diverse [[Khan (title)|Khans]] of various ethnicities as part of the Mongol Empire such as [[Muhammad Khan (Ilkhan)|Muhammad Khan]].

There were tax exemptions for religious figures and, to some extent, teachers and doctors. The Mongol Empire practiced [[religious tolerance]] because Mongol tradition had long held that religion was a personal concept, and not subject to law or interference.{{Citation needed|date=July 2008}} Sometime before the rise of Genghis Khan, Ong Khan, his mentor and eventual rival, had converted to [[Nestorian Christianity]]. Various Mongol tribes were Shamanist, Buddhist or Christian. Religious tolerance was thus a well established concept on the Asian steppe.

Modern Mongolian historians say that towards the end of his life, Genghis Khan attempted to create a [[civilian|civil state]] under the Great Yassa that would have established the legal equality of all individuals, including [[women's rights|women]].<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=May 20, 2008|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2005/05/09/news/mongol.php|title=Mongolia sees Genghis Khan's good side|work=International Herald Tribune|date=May 10, 2005|author=Pocha, Jehangir S.}}</ref> However, there is no evidence of this, or of the lifting of discriminatory policies towards sedentary peoples such as the Chinese. Women played a relatively important role in Mongol Empire and in family, for example [[Töregene Khatun]] was briefly in charge of the Mongol Empire when next male [[Khagan]] was being chosen. Modern scholars refer to the alleged policy of encouraging trade and communication as the [[Pax Mongolica]] ([[Mongol]] Peace).

Genghis Khan realised that he needed people who could govern cities and states conquered by him. He also realised that such administrators could not be found among his Mongol people because they were nomads and thus had no experience governing cities. For this purpose Genghis Khan invited a [[Khitan people|Khitan]] prince, [[Yelü Chucai|Chu'Tsai]], who worked for the Jin and had been captured by the Mongol army after the Jin dynasty was defeated. Jin had captured power by displacing Khitan. Genghis told Chu'Tsai, who was a lineal descendant of Khitan rulers, that he had avenged Chu'Tsai's forefathers. Chu'Tsai responded that his father served the Jin dynasty honestly and so did he; also he did not consider his own father his enemy, so the question of revenge did not apply. This reply impressed Genghis Khan. Chu'Tsai administered parts of the Mongol Empire and became a confidant of the successive Mongol Khans.

===Military===
{{Main article|Mongol military tactics and organization}}
[[File:USMC-070801-M-1848T-151.jpg|thumb|Reenactment of Mongol battle]]
Genghis Khan put absolute trust in his generals, such as [[Muqali]], [[Jebe]] and [[Subutai]], and regarded them as close advisors, often extending them the same privileges and trust normally reserved for close family members. He allowed them to make decisions on their own when they embarked on campaigns far from the Mongol Empire capital [[Karakorum]]. Muqali, a trusted lieutenant, was given command of the Mongol forces against the Jin dynasty while Genghis Khan was fighting in Central Asia, and [[Subutai]] and [[Jebe]] were allowed to pursue the Great Raid into the Caucasus and [[Kievan Rus']], an idea they had presented to the Khagan on their own initiative. While granting his generals a great deal of autonomy in making command decisions, Genghis Khan also expected unwavering loyalty from them.

The Mongol military was also successful in [[siege warfare]], cutting off resources for cities and towns by diverting certain rivers, taking enemy prisoners and driving them in front of the army, <!--Ratchnevsky, Grousset, Hartog, Morgan, will add ref--> and adopting new ideas, techniques and tools from the people they conquered, particularly in employing Muslim and Chinese siege engines and engineers to aid the Mongol cavalry in capturing cities. Another standard [[military tactics|tactic]] of the Mongol military was the commonly practiced [[Withdrawal (military)|feigned retreat]] to break enemy formations and to lure small enemy groups away from the larger group and defended position for [[ambush]] and [[counterattack]].

Another important aspect of the military organization of Genghis Khan was the [[transport|communications]] and [[Materiel|supply]] route or ''[[Yam (route)|Yam]]'', adapted from previous Chinese models. Genghis Khan dedicated special attention to this in order to speed up the gathering of [[military intelligence]] and official communications. To this end, Yam waystations were established all over the empire.<ref>Jack Weatherford, Genghis Khan: War of the Khans (New York: Random House, Inc., 2004), 58</ref>

===Khanates===
Several years before his death, Genghis Khan divided his empire among his sons [[Ögedei Khan|Ögedei]], [[Chagatai Khan|Chagatai]], [[Tolui]], and [[Jochi]] (Jochi's death several months before Genghis Khan meant that his lands were instead split between his sons, [[Batu Khan|Batu]] and [[Orda Khan|Orda]]) into several Khanates designed as sub-territories: their [[Khan (title)|Khans]] were expected to follow the [[Great Khan]], who was, initially, Ögedei.

[[File:Harhorin.jpg|thumb|300px|Modern-day location of capital [[Kharakhorum]]]]
Following are the [[Khanate]]s as Genghis Khan assigned them:
*'''[[Yuan dynasty|Empire of the Great Khan]]''': [[Ögedei Khan]], as ''Great Khan'', took most of Eastern Asia, including China; this territory later to comprise the [[Yuan dynasty]] under [[Kublai Khan]].
*'''[[Mongol]] homeland''' (present day [[Mongolia]], including [[Karakorum]]): [[Tolui|Tolui Khan]], being the youngest son, received a small territory near the Mongol homeland, following Mongol custom.
*'''[[Chagatai Khanate]]''': [[Chagatai Khan]], Genghis Khan's second son, was given Central Asia and northern [[Iran]].
*'''[[Blue Horde]]''' to Batu Khan, and '''[[White Horde]]''' to Orda Khan, both were later combined into the [[Kipchak Khanate]], or [[Golden Horde|Khanate of the Golden Horde]], under [[Toqtamysh]]. Genghis Khan's eldest son, Jochi, had received most of the distant Russia and [[Ruthenia]]. Because Jochi died before Genghis Khan, his territory was further split up between his sons. Batu Khan launched an invasion of Russia, and later Hungary and Poland, and crushed several armies before being summoned back by the news of Ögedei's death.

===After Genghis Khan===
{{See also|List of Mongol rulers}}
[[File:Ogadai Khan.jpg|thumb|upright|Genghis Khan's son and successor, [[Ögedei Khan]]]]
Contrary to popular belief, Genghis Khan did not conquer the whole area of the eventual Mongol Empire. At the time of his death in 1227, the empire stretched from the [[Caspian Sea]] to the [[Sea of Japan]]. Its expansion continued for one or more generations. Under Genghis's successor [[Ögedei Khan]] the speed of expansion reached its peak. Mongol armies pushed into Persia, finished off the [[Western Xia]] and the remnants of the Khwarezmids, and clashed with the imperial [[Song dynasty]] of China, and eventually took control of all of China in 1279. They also pushed further into Russia and eastern Europe.

==Perceptions==
Like other notable conquerors, Genghis Khan is portrayed differently by conquered peoples than those who conquered with him. Negative views persist in histories written by many cultures from different geographical regions. They often cite the systematic slaughter of civilians in conquered regions, cruelties and destruction by Mongol armies. Other authors also cite positive aspects of Genghis Khan's conquests.

===Positive===
[[File:GhingisHan-rev.jpg|thumb|upright|Genghis Khan on the reverse of a [[Kazakhstan]] 100 [[Kazakhstani tenge|Tenge]] coin. The coin was minted as a collectable to honor the warlord, and is not used in common transactions.]]
Genghis Khan is credited with bringing the [[Silk Road]] under one cohesive political environment. This allowed increased communication and trade between the West, Middle East and Asia, thus expanding the horizons of all three cultural areas. Some historians have noted that Genghis Khan instituted certain levels of [[meritocracy]] in his rule, was tolerant of religions and explained his policies clearly to all his soldiers.<ref>Clive Foss, ''The Tyrants'', page 57, Quercus, London, 2007.</ref> In Turkey, Genghis Khan is considered a great military leader, and it is popular for male children to carry his title as name.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ismi Didikle|url=http://www.ismididikle.com/isim_533_cengiz.htm|accessdate=May 5, 2008|publisher=Ismi Didikle|language=Turkish}}</ref>

====In Mongolia====
Genghis Khan had been revered for centuries by Mongols and certain other ethnic groups such as [[Turkic peoples|Turks]], largely because of his association with Mongol statehood, political and military organization, and his victories in war. He eventually evolved into a larger-than-life figure chiefly among the Mongols and is still considered the symbol of [[Mongolian culture]].

During the communist period in Mongolia, Genghis was often described as a reactionary, and positive statements about him were avoided.<ref>[http://www.chriskaplonski.com/downloads/Disappearing.pdf Christopher Kaplonski: ''The case of the disappearing Chinggis Khaan].</ref> In 1962, the erection of a monument at his birthplace and a conference held in commemoration of his 800th birthday led to criticism from the Soviet Union and the dismissal of secretary Tömör-Ochir of the ruling [[Mongolian People's Party|Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party]] [[Central Committee]].

[[File:Chinggis Khan hillside portrait.JPG|thumb|left|Portrait on a hillside in Ulaanbaatar, 2006]]

In the early 1990s, the memory of Genghis Khan underwent a powerful revival, partly in reaction to its suppression during the [[Mongolian People's Republic]] period. Genghis Khan became one of the central figures of the national identity. He is considered positively by Mongolians for his role in uniting warring tribes. For example, Mongolians often refer to their country as "Genghis Khan's Mongolia", to themselves as "Genghis Khan's children", and to Genghis Khan as the "father of the Mongols" especially among the younger generation. However, there is a chasm in the perception of his brutality. Mongolians maintain that the historical records written by non-Mongolians are unfairly biased against Genghis Khan and that his butchery is exaggerated, while his positive role is underrated.<ref>{{cite news |last=Griffiths |first=Daniel |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6252741.stm?lsf |title=Asia-Pacific &#124; Post-communist Mongolia's struggle. |publisher=BBC News   |date=January 11, 2007 |accessdate=August 3, 2009}}</ref>

In Mongolia today, Genghis Khan's name and likeness appear on products, streets, buildings, and other places. His face can be found on everyday commodities, from liquor bottles to candy, and on the largest denominations of 500, 1,000, 5,000, 10,000, and 20,000 [[Mongolian tögrög]] (₮). Mongolia's main international airport in [[Ulaanbaatar]] is named [[Chinggis Khaan International Airport]]. Major Genghis Khan statues stand before the parliament<ref>[http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,202695,00.html Once Shunned, Genghis Khan Conquers Mongolia Again]</ref> and near Ulaanbaatar. There have been repeated discussions about regulating the use of his name and image to avoid trivialization.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/5412410.stm |title=Business &#124; Genghis Khan may get protection. |publisher=BBC News |date=October 6, 2006 |accessdate=August 3, 2009}}</ref>

Genghis Khan is regarded as one of the prominent leaders in Mongolia's history.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/1967201.stm |title=ASIA-PACIFIC &#124; Mongolia glorifies Genghis Khan. |publisher=BBC News |date=May 3, 2002 |accessdate=August 3, 2009}}</ref> He is responsible for the emergence of the Mongols as a political and ethnic identity because there was no unified identity between the tribes that had cultural similarity. He reinforced many Mongol traditions and provided stability and unity during a time of almost [[endemic warfare]] between tribes. He is also credited for introducing the traditional [[Mongolian script]] and creating the first written Mongolian code of law, the [[Yassa|Ikh Zasag]] ("Great Administration").<ref>{{cite web |title=The Yasa of Chingis Khan|url=http://www.coldsiberia.org/webdoc9.htm|accessdate=February 16, 2010}}</ref> Mongolian President [[Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj]] has noted that the Ikh Zasag heavily punished corruption and bribery,<ref>{{cite web|title=Speech of President Elbegdorj at introduction of Partnering Against Corruption Initiative|publisher=Office of the President of Mongolia|url=http://president.mn/eng/newsCenter/viewNews.php?newsId=492|accessdate=August 1, 2013|date=March 3, 2011}}</ref> and he considers Genghis Khan a teacher for anti-corruption efforts who sought equal protection under the law for all citizens regardless of status or wealth.  On the 850th anniversary of Genghis's birth, the President stated "Chinggis&nbsp;... was a man who deeply realized that the justice begins and consolidates with the equality of law, and not with the distinctions between people. He was a man who knew that the good laws and rules lived longer than fancy palaces."<ref>{{cite web|title=Speech by Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj, President of Mongolia at a solemn assembly, dedicated to the 850th anniversary of birth of Chinggis Khaan|publisher=Office of the President of Mongolia|url=http://www.president.mn/eng/newsCenter/viewNews.php?newsId=848|accessdate=June 21, 2013|date=November 14, 2012}}</ref> In summary, Mongolians see him as the fundamental figure in the founding of the Mongol Empire and therefore the basis for [[Mongolia]] as a country.

From 2012, Mongolia is to celebrate Chinggis Khaan's birthday as a national holiday, on the first day of winter according to the Mongolian lunar calendar (not to be confused with the Asian new year).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.infomongolia.com/ct/ci/2932 |title=Mongolia to celebrate the birthday of Great Chinggis Khaan |publisher=InfoMongolia.com |accessdate=October 12, 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131014125732/http://www.infomongolia.com/ct/ci/2932 |archivedate=October 14, 2013 |df=mdy }}</ref>

====In Japan====

Japanese like [[Kenchō Suematsu|Kenchō Suyematsu]] have claimed that the ethnic Japanese [[Minamoto no Yoshitsune]] was Genghis Khan.<ref>MIYAWAKI-OKADA, JUNKO. "The Japanese Origin of the Chinggis Khan Legends." Inner Asia 8, no. 1 (2006): 123–34. {{jstor|23615520}}</ref>

===Mixed===

====In China====
[[File:GenghisKhanMonument.jpg|thumb|Genghis Khan Monument in [[Hohhot]], [[Inner Mongolia]], China]]
There are conflicting views of Genghis Khan in the People's Republic of China. The legacy of Genghis and his successors, who completed the conquest of China after 65 years of struggle, remains a mixed topic.{{citation needed|date=November 2014}} China suffered a drastic [[Population decline|decline in population]].<ref name="china">William Bonner, Addison Wiggin (2006). "''[https://books.google.com/books?id=C1BL5UCTFOgC&pg=PA43&dq&hl=en#v=onepage&q=&f=false Empire of debt: the rise of an epic financial crisis]''". John Wiley and Sons. pp.43–44. ISBN 0-471-73902-2</ref> The population of north China decreased from 50 million in the 1195 [[census]] to 8.5&nbsp;million in the Mongol census of 1235–36. An unknown number of people migrated to Southern China in this period.<ref>Graziella Caselli, Gillaume Wunsch, Jacques Vallin (2005). "''[https://books.google.com/books?id=nmgNXoiAiU4C&pg=RA2-PA34&dq&hl=en#v=onepage&q=&f=false Demography: Analysis and Synthesis, Four Volume Set: A Treatise in Population]''". Academic Press. p.34. ISBN 0-12-765660-X</ref>

In [[Inner Mongolia]] there are a monument and buildings dedicated to him and considerable number of ethic Mongols in the area with a population of around 5 million, almost twice the population of [[Mongolia]]. While Genghis never conquered all of China, his grandson [[Kublai Khan]] completed that conquest and established the [[Yuan dynasty]] that is often credited with re-uniting China. There has been much artwork and literature praising Genghis as a military leader and political genius. The Mongol-established [[Yuan dynasty]] left an indelible imprint on Chinese political and social structures for subsequent generations with literature during the preceding [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin dynasty]] relatively fewer.

Genghis Khan supported the Chinese Daoist sect leader [[Qiu Chuji]] and after personally meeting him in what is now Afghanistan, gave him control of all religious affairs in northern China.

===Negative===
{{Main article|Destruction under the Mongol Empire}}
[[File:DiezAlbumsFallOfBaghdad.jpg|thumb|Invasions like [[Battle of Baghdad (1258)|the Battle of Baghdad]] by his grandson are treated as brutal and are seen negatively in Iraq. This illustration is from a 14th-century [[Jami' al-tawarikh]] manuscript.]]
In the Middle East, and particularly in [[Iran]], Genghis Khan is almost universally condemned as a destructive and [[genocide|genocidal]] warlord who caused enormous destruction to the population of these areas.<ref>[http://www.payvand.com/news/03/jun/1074.html "The Legacy of Genghis Khan" at Los Angeles County Museum of Art—again].</ref> Steven R. Ward wrote that "Overall, the Mongol violence and depredations killed up to three-fourths of the population of the Iranian Plateau, possibly 10 to 15 million people. Some historians have estimated that Iran's population did not again reach its pre-Mongol levels until the mid-20th century."<ref>{{Cite book| last      = R. Ward| first     = Steven| title     = Immortal: a military history of Iran and its armed forces| url  = https://books.google.com/books?id=8eUTLaaVOOQC&pg=PA39&dq#v=onepage&q=&f=false| publisher=Georgetown University Press| year = 2009| page = 39| isbn      = 1-58901-258-5}}</ref>

In [[Afghanistan]] (along with other non-Turkic Muslim countries), he is generally viewed unfavorably, though some groups display ambivalence as it is believed that the [[Hazara people|Hazara]] of Afghanistan are descendants of a large Mongol garrison stationed there.<ref name="Zerjal2003">{{cite journal |year = 2003|title = The Genetic Legacy of the Mongols|journal = The American Journal of Human Genetics|volume = 72|issue = 3|pages = 717–721|doi = 10.1086/367774|pmid = 12592608|last2 = Xue|first2 = Y|last3 = Bertorelle|first3 = G|last4 = Wells|first4 = RS|last5 = Bao|first5 = W|last6 = Zhu|first6 = S|last7 = Qamar|first7 = R|last8 = Ayub|first8 = Q|last9 = Mohyuddin|first9 = A|pmc = 1180246|archivedate = September 29, 2007|last = Zerjal|first = T}}</ref><ref>''Genetics: Analysis Of Genes And Genomes'' by Daniel L. Hartl, Elizabeth W. Jones, p. 309.</ref>

The invasions of [[Baghdad]], [[Samarkand]], [[Köneürgenç|Urgench]], [[Kiev]], [[Vladimir, Russia|Vladimir]] among others caused mass murders, such as when portions of southern [[Khuzestan]] were completely destroyed. His descendant [[Hulagu Khan]] destroyed much of Iran's north and sacked Baghdad although his forces were halted by the [[Mamluk]]s of [[Egypt]], but Hulagu's descendant Ghazan Khan returned to beat the Mamluks out of Levant, Palestine and even Gaza. According to the works of the Persian historian [[Rashid-al-Din Hamadani]], the Mongols killed more than 70,000 people in [[Merv]] and more than 190,000 in [[Nishapur]]. In 1237, [[Batu Khan]], a grandson of Genghis Khan, launched an invasion into Kievan Rus'. Over the course of three years, the Mongols annihilated all of the major cities of Eastern Europe with the exception of [[Novgorod]] and [[Pskov]].<ref name="parallelsixty.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.parallelsixty.com/history-russia.shtml|title=History of Russia|publisher=}}</ref>

[[Giovanni de Plano Carpini]], the Pope's envoy to the Mongol Great Khan, travelled through [[Kiev]] in February 1246 and wrote:

{{cquote|They [the Mongols] attacked Russia, where they made great havoc, destroying cities and fortresses and slaughtering men; and they laid siege to Kiev, the capital of Russia; after they had besieged the city for a long time, they took it and put the inhabitants to death. When we were journeying through that land we came across countless skulls and bones of dead men lying about on the ground. Kiev had been a very large and thickly populated town, but now it has been reduced almost to nothing, for there are at the present time scarce two hundred houses there and the inhabitants are kept in complete slavery.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/citd/RussianHeritage/4.PEAS/4.L/12.III.5.html |archive-url=http://archive.is/20120530043944/https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/citd/RussianHeritage/4.PEAS/4.L/12.III.5.html |dead-url=yes |archive-date=May 30, 2012 |title=The Destruction of Kiev |publisher=Tspace.library.utoronto.ca |accessdate=October 12, 2013 }}</ref>}}

[[File:MongolsInHungary1285.jpg|thumb|The [[Mongol invasion of Hungary]]. The dismounted Mongols, with captured women, are on the left, the Hungarians, with one saved woman, on the right.]]
Among the [[Iranian peoples]], Genghis Khan, along with [[Hulagu]] and [[Timur]] are among the most despised conquerors in the region.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iranchamber.com/podium/history/040702_tale_of_book_iran.php |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071214061743/http://www.iranchamber.com/podium/history/040702_tale_of_book_iran.php |archivedate=December 14, 2007 |title='&#39;Phoenix From the Ashes: A Tale of the Book in Iran'&#39; |publisher=Web.archive.org |date=December 14, 2007 |accessdate=October 12, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unesco.org/dialogue/en/Regard1debates.htm |title=Civilizations: How we see others, how others see us |publisher=Unesco.org |accessdate=October 12, 2013}}</ref>

Although the famous [[Mughal emperors]] were proud descendants of Genghis Khan and particularly [[Timur]], they clearly distanced themselves from the Mongol atrocities committed against the Khwarizim Shahs, [[Turkic peoples|Turks]], [[Persian people|Persian]]s, the citizens of [[Baghdad]] and [[Damascus]], [[Nishapur]], [[Bukhara]] and historical figures such as [[Attar of Nishapur]] and many other notable [[Muslim]]s. However, Mughal Emperors directly patronized the legacies of Genghis Khan and Timur; together their names were synonymous with the names of other distinguished personalities particularly among the Muslim populations of South Asia.

In much of Russia, Middle East, [[Korea]], China, [[Ukraine]], Poland and Hungary, Genghis Khan and his regime are blamed for considerable destruction and loss of population.

==Descent==
{{Main article|Descent from Genghis Khan}}
In addition to most of the Mongol nobility up to the 20th century, the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] emperor [[Babur]]'s mother was a descendant. [[Timur]] (also known as Tamerlane), the 14th century military leader,  and many other nobilities of central Asian countries claimed descent from Genghis Khan. During [[Stalinist repressions in Mongolia|the Soviet purge]] most of the Mongol nobility in Mongolia were purged.

==Physical appearance==
[[File:1000 Tugriks - Recto.jpg|thumb|right|Genghis Khan on the Mongolian 1,000 [[Mongolian tögrög|tögrög]] banknote]]

The closest depiction generally accepted by most historians is the portrait currently in the [[National Palace Museum]] in Taipei, Taiwan, which was drawn under the supervision of his grandson Khubilai during the Mongol Yuan dynasty and depicts Genghis Khan with typical Mongol features.<ref>{{cite web|title=Britannica|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/media/114991/Genghis-Khan-ink-and-colour-on-silk-in-the-National|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.}}</ref>

== Depictions in modern culture ==
[[File:GhinggisKhanStatue.jpg|thumb|Statue of Genghis Khan at [[Mausoleum of Genghis Khan|his mausoleum]], China]]
There have been several films, novels and other adaptation works on the Mongolian ruler.
[[File:Mural of siege warfare, Genghis Khan Exhibit, Tech Museum San Jose, 2010.jpg|thumb|Mural of siege warfare, Genghis Khan Exhibit in San Jose, California, US]]

=== Films ===
* ''[[Genghis Khan (1950 film)|Genghis Khan]]'', a 1950 Philippine film directed by [[Manuel Conde]].
* ''Changez Khan'', a 1957 Indian film directed by Kedar Kapoor.
* ''Changez Khan'', a 1958 Pakistani film.
* ''[[The Conqueror (film)|The Conqueror]]'', released in 1956 and starring [[John Wayne]] as Temüjin and [[Susan Hayward]] as Börte.
* ''[[Genghis Khan (1965 film)|Genghis Khan]]'' starring [[Omar Sharif]].
* ''[[Under The Eternal Blue Sky]]'', a Mongolian film directed by Baljinnyam, which was released in 1990. Starring [[Agvaantserengiin Enkhtaivan]] as Temüjin.
* ''[[Genghis Khan (1992 film)|Genghis Khan]]'' starring [[Richard Tyson]], [[Charlton Heston]] and [[Pat Morita]].
* ''[[Genghis Khan - A Proud Son Of Heaven (1998 film)|Genghis Khan - A Proud Son Of Heaven]]'', made in Mongolian, with English subtitles.
* ''[[Genghis Khan: To the Ends of the Earth and Sea]]'', also known as ''The Descendant of Gray Wolf'', a Japanese-Mongolian film released in 2007.
* ''[[Mongol (film)|Mongol]]'', a film by [[Sergei Bodrov]] released in 2007. ([[Academy Award]] nominee for Best Foreign Language Film).
* ''[[No Right to Die - Chinggis Khaan]]'', a Mongolian film released in 2008.
* ''By the Will of Genghis Khan'', a Russian film released in 2009.

=== Television series ===
* ''[[Genghis Khan (TVB TV series)|Genghis Khan]]'', a 1987 Hong Kong television series produced by [[Television Broadcasts Limited|TVB]], starring [[Alex Man]].
* ''[[Genghis Khan (ATV TV series)|Genghis Khan]]'', a 1987 Hong Kong television series produced by [[Asia Television|ATV]], starring [[Tony Liu]].
* ''[[Genghis Khan (2004 TV series)|Genghis Khan]]'', a 2004 Chinese-Mongolian co-produced television series, starring [[Batdorj-in Baasanjab|Ba Sen]], who is a descendant of Genghis Khan's second son [[Chagatai Khan|Chagatai]].

=== Poetry ===
* ''The End of Genghis'', a poem by [[F. L. Lucas]], in which the dying Khan, attended by his [[Khitan people|Khitan]] counsellor [[Yelü Chucai]], looks back on his life.<ref>Lucas, F. L., ''From Many Times and Lands'' (London, 1953), pp. 148–155</ref>

=== Novels ===
* ''Jenghiz Khan'' and ''Batu Khan'' by Vasili Yan, trans. L. E. Britton, publisher. Hutchinson
* ''The Conqueror'' series of novels by [[Conn Iggulden]]
* ''Steppe'' by Piers Anthony
* ''Jenghiz Khan'' in Telugu (Indian language) by Thenneti Suri
* ''Genghis Khan'' (Last incarnation) in [[Metro 2033 (novel)|Metro 2033]] by [[Dmitry Glukhovsky]]

=== Short stories ===
* ''[[The Private Life of Genghis Khan]]'' by [[Douglas Adams]] and [[Graham Chapman]]

=== Music ===
* West German pop band [[Dschinghis Khan]] took its name from the German spelling of Genghis Khan, "Dschingis Khan". They participated in the [[Eurovision Song Contest 1979]] with [[Dschinghis Khan (song)|their song of the same name]].

=== Video games ===
* ''[[Age of Empires II: The Age of Kings]]''
* ''[[Aoki Ookami to Shiroki Mejika IV: Genghis Khan]]''
* ''[[Crusader Kings 2]]''
* ''[[Deadliest Warrior: Legends]]''
* ''[[Civilization (series)|Sid Meier's Civilization]]''

==Name and title==
There are many theories about the origins of Temüjin's title. Since people of the Mongol nation later associated the name with ''ching'' (Mongolian for strength), such confusion is obvious, though it does not follow etymology.
[[File:GhinggisKhanMausoleumGate.jpg|right|thumb|The gate of Genghis Khan Mausoleum, [[Ordos (city)|Ordos]], [[Inner Mongolia]]]]
One theory suggests the name stems from a palatalised version of the Mongolian and [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] word ''tenggis'', meaning "ocean", "oceanic" or "wide-spreading". ([[Lake Baikal]] and ocean were called ''tenggis'' by the Mongols. However, it seems that if they had meant to call Genghis ''tenggis'' they could have said, and written, "Tenggis Khan", which they did not.) Zhèng (Chinese: 正) meaning "right", "just", or "true", would have received the Mongolian adjectival modifier ''-s'', creating "Jenggis", which in medieval romanization would be written "Genghis". It is likely that the 13th century Mongolian pronunciation would have closely matched "Chinggis".<ref>{{cite book |last = Lister|first = R. P.|title = Genghis Khan|year = 2000|publisher = Cooper Square Press|location = Lanham, Maryland|isbn = 0-8154-1052-2|orig-year = c1969|author-link = Richard Percival Lister}}</ref>

The English spelling "Genghis" is of unclear origin. [[Jack Weatherford|Weatherford]] claims it derives from a spelling used in original Persian reports. Even at this time some Iranians pronounce his name as "Ghengiss". However, review of historical Persian sources does not confirm this.<ref>{{cite web
| url        = http://worldhistoryconnected.press.uiuc.edu/2.2/br_may.html
| title      = Book Review
| author=Timothy May
| publisher=North Georgia College and State University
| accessdate =February 20, 2008}}</ref>

According to the ''[[Secret History of the Mongols]]'', Temüjin was named after a powerful warrior of the Tatar tribe that his father Yesügei had taken prisoner. The name "Temüjin" is believed to derive from the word ''temür'', meaning iron (modern Mongolian: {{lang|mn|төмөр}}, ''tömör''). The name would imply a blacksmith or a man strong like iron.

No evidence has survived to indicate that Genghis Khan had any exceptional training or reputation as a blacksmith. But the latter interpretation (a man strong like iron) is supported by the names of Genghis Khan's siblings, Temülin and Temüge, which are derived from the same root word.

===Name and spelling variations===
<!-- This section is linked from Genghis Khan -->
Genghis Khan, the title is spelled in variety of ways in different languages such as [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]] Chinggis Khaan, English ''Chinghiz'', ''Chinghis'', and ''Chingiz'', {{zh|c=成吉思汗|p=Chéngjísī Hán}}, [[Turkic languages|Turkic]]: ''Cengiz Han'', ''Çingiz Xan'', ''Çingiz Han'', ''Chingizxon'', ''Çıñğız Xan'', ''Chengez Khan'', ''Chinggis Khan'', ''Chinggis Xaan'', ''Chingis Khan'', ''Jenghis Khan'', ''Chinggis Qan'', ''Djingis Kahn'', [[Russian languages|Russian]]: Чингисхан (''Čingiskhan'') or Чингиз-хан (''Čingiz-khan''), etc. Temüjin is written in Chinese as {{zh|s=铁木真|t=鐵木眞|p=Tiěmùzhēn}}.

When [[Kublai Khan]] established the [[Yuan dynasty]] in 1271, he had his grandfather Genghis Khan placed on the official record as the founder of the dynasty or ''Taizu'' ({{zh|太祖|Tàizǔ}}). Thus, Genghis Khan is also referred to as ''Yuan Taizu'' (Emperor Taizu of Yuan, {{zh|元太祖|Yuán Tàizǔ}}) in [[Chinese historiography]].

==Timeline==
[[File:GenghisKhanMonumentInHulunbuir.jpg|thumb|Monument in [[Hulunbuir]], Inner Mongolia, China]]
* Probably 1155, 1162, or 1167: Temüjin was born in the [[Khentii mountains]].
* When Temüjin was nine, his father [[Yesükhei]] was poisoned by [[Tatars]], leaving Temüjin and his family destitute.
* c. 1184: Temüjin's wife [[Börte]] was kidnapped by [[Merkit]]s; he called on blood brother [[Jamukha]] and [[Wang Khan]] for aid, and they rescued her.
* c. 1185: First son [[Jochi]] was born; leading to doubt about his paternity later among Genghis's children, because he was born shortly after Börte's rescue from the Merkits.
* 1190: Temüjin united the Mongol tribes, became leader, and devised code of law [[Yassa]].
* 1201: Victory over [[Jamukha]]'s [[Jadaran]]s.
* 1202: Adopted as Wang Khan's heir after successful campaigns against [[Tatars]].
* 1203: Victory over Wang Khan's [[Keraites]]. Wang Khan himself killed by accident by allied Naimans.
* 1204: Victory over [[Naimans]] (all these confederations unite and become the Mongols).
* 1206: Jamukha was killed. Temüjin was given the title ''Genghis Khan'' by his followers in a [[Kurultai]] (around 40 years of age).
* 1207–1210: Genghis led operations against the [[Western Xia]], which comprises much of northwestern China and parts of [[Tibet]]. Western Xia ruler submitted to Genghis Khan. During this period, the [[Uyghurs]] also submitted peacefully to the Mongols and became valued administrators throughout the empire.
* 1211: After the kurultai, Genghis led his armies against the [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin dynasty]] ruling northern China.
* 1215: Beijing fell; Genghis Khan turned to west and the Khara-Kitan Khanate.
* 1219–1222: Conquered [[Khwarezmid Empire]].
* 1226: Started the campaign against the Western Xia for forming coalition against the Mongols, the second battle with the Western Xia.
* 1227: Genghis Khan died after conquering the Tangut people. Cause of death is uncertain, although legend states that he was thrown off his horse in the battle and contracted a deadly fever soon after.

==See also==
* [[List of medieval Mongolian tribes and clans]]
* [[List of Mongolian monarchs]]
* [[Family tree of Genghis Khan]]
* [[Rags to riches]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|group="note"}}

==References==

=== Notes ===
{{Reflist|30em}}

=== Sources ===
* {{Cite book |last=Hildinger |first=Erik |title=Warriors Of The Steppe: Military History Of Central Asia, 500 BC To 1700 AD |year=1997 |publisher=De Capo Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=0-7867-3114-1}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lane |first=George |title=Genghis Khan and Mongol Rule |year=2004 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |location=Westport, Connecticut |isbn=0-313-32528-6}}
* {{Cite book |last=Man |first=John |authorlink=John Man (author) |title=Genghis Khan: Life, Death and Resurrection |year=2004 |publisher=Bantam Press |location=London; New York |isbn=0-593-05044-4}}
* {{Cite book |last=Ratchnevsky |first=Paul |others= tr. & ed. Thomas Nivison Haining |title=Genghis Khan: His Life and Legacy [Čingis-Khan: sein Leben und Wirken] |year=1991|publisher=B. Blackwell |location=Oxford, UK; Cambridge, Massachusetts, US |isbn=0-631-16785-4}}

==Further reading==
{{Library resources box|onlinebooks=yes|viaf=100172770}}
* {{Cite book |last=Brent |first=Peter |title=The Mongol Empire: Genghis Khan: His Triumph and His Legacy |year=1976 |publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicholson |location=London |isbn=0-297-77137-X }}
* {{Cite book |last=Bretschneider |first=Emilii |title=Mediæval Researches from Eastern Asiatic Sources; Fragments Towards the Knowledge of the Geography & History of Central & Western Asia |series=This Elibron Classics book is a facsimile reprint of an 1888 edition by Trübner & Co., London. |year=2002 | location= | publisher=Adamant Media Corporation |isbn=978-1-4021-9303-3}}
* {{Cite book |last=Cable |first=Mildred |author2=Francesca French |title=The Gobi Desert |year=1943 |publisher=Landsborough Publications |location=London}}
* {{cite book| last = Chapin| first = David
  | year = 2012
  | title = Long Lines: Ten of the World's Longest Continuous Family Lineages
  | publisher = VirtualBookWorm.com | location = College Station, Texas
  | isbn = 978-1-60264-933-0  }}
* {{Cite book |last=Charney |first=Israel W. (ed.) |title=Genocide: A Critical Bibliographic Review |year=1994 |publisher=Facts on File Publications |location=New York}}<!-- Volume number?-->
* {{cite book |last=Farale |first=Dominique |title=De Gengis Khan à Qoubilaï Khan : la grande chevauchée mongole |series=Campagnes & stratégies |year=2002 |publisher=Economica |location=Paris |isbn=2-7178-4537-2|language=French}}
* {{cite book |last=Farale |first=Dominique |title=La Russie et les Turco-Mongols : 15 siècles de guerre |year=2007 |publisher=Economica |location=Paris |isbn=978-2-7178-5429-9|language=French}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |title=Genghis Khan |encyclopedia=Funk & Wagnalls New Encyclopedia |publisher=World Almanac Education Group |year=2005 |url=http://www.historychannel.com/thcsearch/thc_resourcedetail.do?encyc_id=210250 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060113174030/http://www.historychannel.com/thcsearch/thc_resourcedetail.do?encyc_id=210250 |archivedate=January 13, 2006 |accessdate=May 22, 2008}} Via the [[Internet Archive]]'s copy of the [[History (U.S. TV channel)|History Channel]] Web site.
* {{cite web |last=Smitha |first=Frank E | title=Genghis Khan and the Mongols |work=Macrohistory and World Report | url=http://www.fsmitha.com/h3/h11mon.htm | accessdate=June 30, 2005}}
* {{Cite book |last=Kennedy |first=Hugh |title=Mongols, Huns & Vikings'' |year=2002 |publisher=Cassell |location=London |isbn=0-304-35292-6}}
* {{Cite book |last=Kradin |first=Nikolay |authorlink=Nikolay Kradin |author2=Tatiana Skrynnikova |title=Imperiia Chingis-khana (Chinggis Khan Empire) |year=2006 |publisher=Vostochnaia literatura |location=Moscow |isbn=5-02-018521-3|language=Russian}} (summary in English)
* {{Cite journal |last=Kradin |first=Nikolay|author2=Tatiana Skrynnikova |title=Why do we call Chinggis Khan's Polity 'an Empire' |journal=Ab Imperio |volume=7 |issue=1 |year=2006 |pages =89–118 |id=5-89423-110-8}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lamb |first=Harold |authorlink=Harold Lamb |title=Genghis Khan: The Emperor of All Men |year=1927 |publisher=R. M. McBride & company |location=New York |url=https://archive.org/details/genghiskhantheem035122mbp}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lister |first=R. P. |title=Genghis Khan |year=2000 |publisher=Cooper Square Press |location=Lanham, Maryland |isbn=0-8154-1052-2}}
* {{Cite book |last=Man |first=John |title=Gobi: Tracking the Desert |year=1999 |publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson; Yale University Press |location=London; New Haven, Conn |isbn=0-7538-0161-2}}
* {{Cite book |last=Martin |first=Henry Desmond |title=The Rise of Chingis Khan and his Conquest of North China |year=1950 |publisher=Johns Hopkins Press |location=Baltimore}}
* {{cite web|last=May |first=Timothy |title=Mongol Arms |year=2001 |work=Explorations in Empire: Pre-Modern Imperialism Tutorial: The Mongols |publisher=San Antonio College History Department |url=http://www.accd.edu/sac/history/keller/Mongols/empsub2.html |accessdate=May 22, 2008 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080518020854/http://www.accd.edu:80/sac/history/keller/Mongols/empsub2.html |archivedate=May 18, 2008 |df=mdy }}
* {{Cite book |last=Morgan |first=David |authorlink=David Morgan (historian) |title=The Mongols |series=The Peoples of Europe |year=1986 |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |isbn=0-631-17563-6}}
* Stevens, Keith. {{PDFWayback |date=20080625210646 |url=http://ideas.union.edu/articles/files/22_Stevens_Heirs_to_Discord.pdf |title="Heirs to Discord: The Supratribal Aspirations of Jamukha, Toghrul, and Temüjin"|size=72.1&nbsp;KB}} Retrieved May 22, 2008.
* {{Cite book |last=Stewart |first=Stanley |title=In the Empire of Genghis Khan: A Journey among Nomads |year=2001 |publisher=Harper Collins |location=London |isbn=0-00-653027-3}}
* {{Cite book |last=Turnbull |first=Stephen |title=Genghis Khan & the Mongol Conquests 1190–1400 |year=2003 |publisher=Osprey Publishing|location=Oxford |isbn=1-84176-523-6}}
* {{Cite book |last=Valentino |first=Benjamin A. |title=Final Solutions: Mass Killing and Genocide in the Twentieth Century |year=2004 |publisher=Cornell University Press |location=Ithaca, N.Y. |isbn=0-8014-3965-5}}

===Primary sources===
* {{Cite book |last=Juvaynī |first=Alā al-Dīn Atā Malik, 1226–1283 |title=Genghis Khan: The History of the World-Conqueror [Tarīkh-i jahāngushā] |others=tr. John Andrew Boyle |year=1997 |publisher=University of Washington Press |location=Seattle |isbn=0-295-97654-3 }}
** {{Cite book |title=History of the World-Conqueror |last=Juvaini |first='ala-ad-Din 'Ata-Malik |others=tr. John Andrew Boyle |year=1958 |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |page=361 |url=https://archive.org/details/historyoftheworl011691mbp |accessdate=April 16, 2012 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Rashid al-Din Tabib |authorlink=Rashid-al-Din Hamadani |title=A Compendium of Chronicles: Rashid al-Din's Illustrated History of the World [[Jami' al-Tawarikh]] |series=The Nasser D. Khalili Collection of Islamic Art, Vol. XXVII |others=Sheila S. Blair (ed.) |year=1995 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=0-19-727627-X}}
* {{Cite book |last=Rashid al-Din Tabib |title=The Successors of Genghis Khan (extracts from Jami' Al-Tawarikh) |series=[[UNESCO Collection of Representative Works]]: Persian heritage series |others=tr. from the Persian by John Andrew Boyle |year=1971 |publisher=Columbia University Press |location=New York |url=http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=109217551 |isbn=0-231-03351-6}}
* {{Cite book |title=The Secret History of the Mongols: A Mongolian Epic Chronicle of the Thirteenth Century [Yuan chao bi shi] |series=Brill's Inner Asian Library vol. 7 |others=tr. [[Igor de Rachewiltz]] |year=2004 |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden; Boston |isbn=90-04-13159-0}}

==External links==
{{Sister project links|v=no|voy=no|species=no|n=no|d=Q720|b=no}}
* {{In Our Time|Genghis Khan|b00773mr|Genghis_Khan}}
*Welcome to [http://www.coldsiberia.org/ The Realm of the Mongols]
*Parts of this biography were taken from the [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/mntoc.html Area Handbook series at the Library of Congress]
*[http://necrometrics.com/pre1700a.htm#Mongol Estimates of Mongol warfare casualties]
*[http://www.isidore-of-seville.com/genghis/ Genghis Khan on the Web] (directory of some 250 resources)
*[http://nobsnews.blogspot.com/1994/01/inspirations-of-historians.html#rashid-ad-din-juwayni 'Ala' al-Din 'Ata Malik Juvayni] A History of the World-Conqueror Ghengis Genghis Khan, [[Ata-Malik Juvayni]] and [[Rashid-al-Din Hamadani]]
*[http://www.wdl.org/en/item/2378 The History of Genghizcan the Great, First Emperor of the Antient Moguls and Tartars]
*[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2014/03/140310-genghis-khan-mongols-mongolia-climate-change "Genghis Khan's Secret Weapon Was Rain"], ''[[National Geographic (magazine)|National Geographic]]'', Roff Smith, March 10, 2014

{{S-start}}
{{S-hou|[[Borjigin|House of Borjigin]] (1206–1635)||c. 1162||1227}}
{{S-reg}}
|-
{{S-bef|before=[[Hotula Khan]]}}
{{S-ttl|title=[[Khamag Mongol|Khagan of Khamag Mongol]]|years=1189–1206}}
{{S-non|reason=Khamag Mongol ended<br>'''<small>succeeded by Mongol Empire</small>}}
|-
{{S-new|reason=Mongol Empire established}}
{{S-ttl|title=''[[Khagan]]'' of the [[Mongol Empire]]|years=1206–1227}}
{{S-aft|after=[[Tolui]]<br>'''<small>As regent</small>}}
{{S-end}}

{{Khagans of Mongol Empire}}
{{Mongol Empire}}
{{Yuan Emperors}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Genghis Khan}}
[[Category:Genghis Khan| ]]
[[Category:1160s births]]
[[Category:1227 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Khentii Province]]
[[Category:Borjigin| ]]
[[Category:Great Khans of the Mongol Empire]]
[[Category:13th-century Mongol rulers]]
[[Category:12th-century Mongol rulers]]
[[Category:Year of birth uncertain]]