Dzungar Khanate sayfasının kaynağını görüntüle

{{Use dmy dates |date = May 2014}}

{{Infobox Former Country
|native_name = 
|conventional_long_name = Dzungar Khanate
|common_name = Dzungars (Зүүн гар)
|continent = Asia
|region = Central Asia
|country = Mongolia
|era = [[Early modern period]]
|status = [[Nomadic empire]]
|government_type = Monarchy
|year_start = 1634
|year_end = 1758
|event_start =
|date_start =
|date_event1 = The first Russian record of Khara Khula
|event1 = 1619
|date_event2 = Galdan receives the title of Boshogtu khan from the 5th Dalai Lama
|event2 = 1676
|date_event3 = The Dzungar invasion of the Khalkha
|event3 = 1688 
|date_event4 = Beginning of the [[Dzungar–Qing War]], [[Battle of Ulan Butung]]
|event4 = 1690
|date_event5 = The Qing army occupies Dzungaria
|event5 = 1755–1758
|p1 = Four Oirats
|flag_p1 =
|p2 = Chagatai Khanate
|flag_p2 = Flag of Chagatai khanate.svg
|s1 = Qing dynasty
|flag_s1 = China Qing Dynasty Flag 1889.svg
|s2 = Russian Empire
|flag_s2 = Flag of Russia.svg
|s3 =
|flag_s3 =
|image_flag =
|flag=
|flag_type =
|image_coat =
|image_map = Zunghar Khanate at 1750.jpg
|image_map_caption = The Dzungar Khanate (c. 1750) (in blue line)
|capital = [[Ghulja]]<ref>James A. Millward, Ruth W. Dunnell, Mark C. Elliott ''New Qing imperial history'', p.99</ref>
|national_motto =
|national_anthem =
|common_languages = [[Oirat language|Oirat]], [[Uyghur language|Eastern Turki (Modern Uyghur)]], [[Chagatai language|Chagatai]]
|religion = [[Tibetan Buddhism]]
|currency = [[Pul (coin)|pūl]] (a red copper coin)
|title_leader = [[Khan (title)|Khan]] or [[Khong Tayiji]]
|legislature = Customary rules<br>Mongol-Oirat Code of 1640
|stat_year1 = 
|stat_area1 = 
|stat_pop1 = 600,000<ref>Ethnic Groups of North, East, and Central Asia: An Encyclopedia, by James B. Minahan, p. 210.</ref>
|today = {{Flag|Mongolia}}<br />{{Flag|China}}<br />{{Flag|Kazakhstan}}<br />{{Flag|Kyrgyzstan}}<br />{{Flag|Russia}}
}}

The '''Dzungar Khanate''', also written as the '''Zunghar Khanate''', was an [[Oirats|Oirat]] khanate on the [[Eurasian Steppe]]. It covered the area called [[Dzungaria]] and stretched from the west end of the [[Great Wall of China|Great Wall]] of [[China]] to present-day [[Kazakhstan]], and from present-day [[Kyrgyzstan]] to southern [[Siberia]]. Most of this area today is part of the [[Xinjiang]] autonomous region in China, [[Kazakhstan]], and [[Kyrgyzstan]]. The Dzungar Khanate was the last major [[nomadic empire]] left from the [[Mongol Empire]].

In 1678, [[Galdan Boshugtu Khan|Galdan]] received from the [[Dalai Lama]] the title of ''Boshogtu [[Khan (title)|Khan]]'', thus confirming the [[Dzungar people|Dzungar]]s as the leading tribe within the [[Oirats]]. However, the Dzungar rulers bore the title of [[Khong Tayiji]] (deriving from the Chinese phrase ''Huang Taizi'', which translates into English as "crown prince"), while the state itself was still referred to as the Dzungar Khanate.<ref>C. P. Atwood ''Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire'', p.622</ref> Following the deaths of Galdan Boshogtu Khan in 1697 and his successor [[Tsewang Rabtan]] in 1727, the Khanate fell into a steep decline from which it would never recover, ultimately leading to its annexation and genocide by the [[Qing dynasty]] during the period of 1755–58.

== Etymology ==
{{Chinese
|title = Dzungar Khanate
|s = 准噶尔汗国
|t = 準噶爾汗國
|p = Zhǔngá'ěr Hànguó
|mon = {{MongolUnicode|ᠵᠡᠭᠦᠨ ᠭᠠᠷ ᠤᠨ ᠬᠠᠭᠠᠨᠲᠣ ᠣᠯᠣᠰ}}<br />jegün γar-un qaγan-tu ulus
|tib = {{bo-textonly|ཛེ་གུན་གར།།}}
|uig = جوڭغار<br />Jongghar
}}

[[File:Renat map.jpg|thumb|A map of the Dzungar Khanate, by a [[Johan Gustaf Renat|Swedish officer]] in captivity there in 1716-1733, which include the region known today as [[Zhetysu]]]]
[[File:Pays des calmoucs.gif|thumb|This map fragment shows territories of Oirats as in 1706. (Map Collection of the Library of Congress: "Carte de Tartarie" of Guillaume de L'Isle (1675-1726))]]

"Dzungar" is a compound of the [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]] word ''jegün'' (züün), meaning "left" or "east" and ''γar'' meaning "hand" or "wing".<ref>For the Mongols the primary direction was south. {{Cite book |last = Gaunt |first = John |year = 2004 |title = Modern Mongolian: A Course-Book |location=London |publisher = RoutledgeCurzon |page =[https://books.google.com/books?id=U96O1QkKHawC&pg=PA165 165] |ISBN = 978-0-7007-1326-4}} Mongolian maps placed the south at the top, so west was to the right and east was to the left. {{cite web  |last = Akira |first = Kamimura |title = A Preliminary Analysis of Old Mongolian Manuscript Maps: Towards an Understanding of the Mongols' Perception of the Landscape |url = http://mongol.tufs.ac.jp/landmaps/docs/Kamimura_article.pdf}}</ref> The region of [[Dzungaria]] derives its name from this confederation. Although the Dzungars were located west of the [[Khalkha Mongols|Eastern Mongols]], the derivation of their name has been attributed to the fact that they represented the left wing of the [[Oirats]]. In the early 17th century, the head of the Oirat confederation was the leader of the Khoshut, Gushi Khan. When Gushi Khan decided to invade Tibet to replace the local Tsangpa Khan in favor of the Tibetan Geluk Sect, the Oirat army were organized into left and right wing. The right wing consisting of Khoshuts and Torguts remained in Tibet while the Choros and Khoid of the Left wing retreated north into the Tarim basin, since then the powerful empire of the Choros became known as the Left Wing, i.e. Zuungar.

== History ==
{{History of the Mongols}}
{{History of Mongolia}}
{{History of Xinjiang}}

=== Outline ===
The Dzungar Khanate is memorable because it was the last of the steppe nomadic empires and because of its influence on the westward expansion of the Chinese state.  About 1620 the [[Oirats]] or western Mongols became united in [[Dzungaria]]. By about 1680 they had conquered the [[Tarim Basin]] to the south. In 1688 Galdan defeated the [[Khalkhas]] or eastern Mongols, many of whom fled southeast to [[Inner Mongolia]] where they became and remained Manchu subjects. In 1696, the Manchu defeated Galdan near [[Ulan Bator]], chased him westward and gained control over [[Outer Mongolia]]. In 1717 Tsewang Rabtan sent an army to [[Tibet]]. The Manchu drove the Dzungars out and established a protectorate over Tibet. In 1750-57, the Manchu took advantage of a Dzungar civil war to conquer Dzungaria and killed a large part of the population. The Manchu turned south and annexed the Tarim Basin by 1759, thus completing the current western border of China.

=== Origin ===
The chiefs of the Dzungars were of the [[Choros]] lineage and reckoned their descent from the Oirat taishis Toghoon (d.1438) and [[Esen Tayisi|Esen]] (r.1438-54). At the beginning of the 17th century, a young leader named [[Khara Khula]] emerged to unite the Oirats to fight Sholui [[Ubashi Khong Tayiji]], the first [[Altan Khan of the Khalkha]], who few years earlier expelled the Oirats from their home in the Kobdo region in present-day northwest [[Mongolia]].<ref>Fred Walter Bergholz ''The partition of the steppe'', p.522</ref> Early in his reign, Khara Kula united the Choros, [[Dörbet (Choros clan)|Dorbod]] and [[Khoid]] tribes, thus forming the Dzungar nation. In the 1620s wars against the [[Khalkha]], he could gain decisive victory over the Eastern Mongols. The Oirats homeland was under the [[dominion]] of [[Jasaghtu Khan]] of the Khalkha. In 1623 the [[Four Oirats|Oirat confederation]] killed Ubashi Khong Tayiji, and secured their independence. At the time, only [[Güshi Khan|Torobaikhu]], a leader of the [[Khoshud]] tribe could claim the title of [[Khan (title)|Khan]] while Baatur Dalai Taishi of the Dorbods was considered the most powerful Oirat chief. Even so, Khara Khula's son [[Erdeni Batur|Baatur Khung Taiji]] (d.1653) joined the 1636-42 expedition to [[Tibet]] led by Güshi Khan Torobaikhu.<ref>Henry Hoyle Howorth ''History of the Mongols from the 9th to the 19th Century'': Part 1, p.595</ref> After Baatur returned to Dzungaria with the title Erdeni (given by [[Dalai Lama]]) and much booty, he made three expeditions against the [[Kazakhs]]. With the migrations of the [[Torghuds]], the Khoshuds and the Dorbods from 1630 to 1677, the Dzungars' relative power was increased in Zungaria.

The conflicts by the Dzungars are remembered in a Kazakh ballad ''Elim-ai''.<ref>{{cite thesis |last = Genina |first = Anna  |date=2015 |title = Claiming Ancestral Homelandsː Mongolian Kazakh migration in Inner Asia |type = A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Anthropology) in The University of Michigan |chapter = |publisher = |docket = |oclc = |url = https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/111536/anngen_1.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |page = 113 |access-date=}}</ref>

The Dzungars went to war against the Kyrgyz, Tajiks, Uzbeks, and Kazakhs when the Dzungars invaded deep into Central Asia to Yasi (Turkestan) and Tashkent in 1643 under Ba'atur Khongtaiji.<ref name="DaniMasson2003">{{cite book |author1 = Ahmad Hasan Dani |author2 = Vadim Mikhaĭlovich Masson |author3 = [[UNESCO]] |title = History of Civilizations of Central Asia: Development in contrast: from the sixteenth to the mid-nineteenth century |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=AzG5llo3YCMC&pg=PA116&dq=kirghiz+kipchak+dzungars&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CBwQ6AEwAGoVChMIq9uerNHIyAIVwmk-Ch2EVABb#v=onepage&q=kirghiz%20kipchak%20dzungars&f=false |date = 1 January 2003 |publisher = UNESCO |ISBN = 978-92-3-103876-1 |pages = 116–}}</ref>

In 1653 [[Sengge]] succeeded his father Baatur Khung Taiji as Dzungarian chief, but an internal strife with his half brother Chechen Tayiji involved the [[Khoshuud]].<ref>Ed. Reuven Amitai-Preiss, David Morgan ''The Mongol empire and its legacy'', p.328</ref> From 1657 on,  Amin-Dara's sons Sengge and [[Galdan]] faced disafection from their half-brothers. With the support of [[Ochirtu Khan]] of the Khoshuud, this strife ended with Sengge's victory in 1661. In 1667 he captured [[Erinchin Lobsang Tayiji]], the third and last Altan Khan. However, he himself was assassinated by his half brothers Chechen Tayiji and Zotov in a [[coup]] in 1670.<ref>''Autobiography of Dalai Lama V'', Vol. Kha, fol 107b. II 5-6</ref>

Sengge's younger brother Galdan immediately returned from Tibet to lay life and took revenge on Chechen. As a Buddhist priest, Galdan had been to Tibet at the age of thirteen and had trained under the fourth [[Panchen Lama]] and then the [[Fifth Dalai Lama]]. Allied with Ochirtu Sechen of the Khoshuud, Galdan defeated Chechen, and drove Zotov out of Zungaria. However, Sengge's two sons Sonom Rabdan and [[Tsewang Rabtan]]  revolted against him, but they were also crushed in the end. In 1671 The Dalai Lama bestowed the title of Khan on Galdan. Although, already married [[Queen Anu|Anu-Dara]], granddaughter of Ochirtu, he came into conflict with his grandfather in law. Fearing of Galdan's popularity, Ochirtu supported his uncle and rival Choqur Ubashi who refused to recognize Galdan's title. The victory over Ochirtu in 1677 resulted in the establishment of hegemony over the Oirats. In the next year the Dalai Lama gave the highest title of Boshoghtu (or Boshughtu) Khan to him,<ref>Martha Avery ''The Tea Road: China and Russia meet across the Steppe'', p.104</ref> Galdan thus united the entire Oirats in Zungaria and Western Mongolia.

[[Brigitta Scherzenfeldt]] and [[Johan Gustaf Renat]] spent time in the Dzungar Khanate as prisoners of war.

=== Conquest of the Tarim Basin (Altishahr) and war with the Central Asians ===
{{Main|Dzungar conquest of Altishahr}}

[[File:Buddainalmaty.JPG|thumb|left|[[Buddha]] images and [[Tibetan Buddhism|Tibetan]] [[mantra]] on rocks near [[Almaty]]]]

The [[Naqshbandi]] [[Sufi]] [[Khoja (Turkestan)|Khoja]]s had replaced the [[Chagatayid Khan]]s as the ruling authority of the Tarim Basin in the early 17th century. They defeated the White Mountain{{what?|date=July 2016}}. The exiled ruler Afaq of the White Mountain asked the [[5th Dalai Lama]] for military assistance in 1677. By the request of the latter, Galdan initiated the [[Dzungar conquest of Altishahr]] and conquered the [[Tarim Basin]] ([[Altishahr]]), installing Afaq as his client ruler there.<ref>Gertraude Roth Li ''Manchu: a textbook for reading documents'', p.318</ref> Galdan decreed that the Turkestanis would be judged by their own law except in cases affecting the Dzungar Empire. The Dzungars kept control over the [[Tarim Basin]] until 1757.

In 1680 the Black Khirgiz raided [[Moghulistan]] and occupied [[Yarkent County|Yarkend]]. The inhabitants of Yarkend appealed to Galdan Khan for help. The Dzungars conquered [[Kashgar]] and Yarkend, and Galdan had its ruler chosen by its inhabitants.<ref>Valikhanov, Ch. Ch. ''The Russians in Central Asia'', p.169</ref> Then he invaded the north of Tengeri Mountain in modern [[Kazakhstan]] the next year, but failed to take Sairam city. Eventually, he could conquer Turfan and [[Hami City|Hami]] the next year.<ref>Baabar, Christopher Kaplonski, D. Suhjargalmaa  ''Twentieth century Mongolia'', p.80</ref> In 1683 Galdan's armies under Rabtan reached [[Tashkent]] and the [[Syr Darya]] and crushed two armies of the Kazakhs. After that Galdan subjugated the Black Khirgiz and ravaged the [[Fergana valley]].

From 1685 Galdan's forces aggressively pushed the Kazakhs. His general Rabtan took Taraz city, and his main force forced the Kazakhs to immigrate westwards.<ref>Michael Khodarkovsky ''Where Two Worlds Met: The Russian State and the Kalmyk Nomads, 1600-1771'', p.211</ref> In 1698 Galdan's successor Tsewang Rabtan reached Tengiz lake and Turkestan, and the Dzungars [[Barefooted Flight|controlled]] Zhei-Su Tashkent until 1745.<ref>C. P. Atwood ''ibid'', p. 622.</ref> The Dzungars' war on the Kazakhs pushed them into seeking aid from Russia.<ref name="Cohen1998">{{cite book|author=Ariel Cohen |title = Russian Imperialism: Development and Crisis |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Ey63iJcVvbMC&pg=PA50#v=onepage&q&f=false |year=1998 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |ISBN = 978-0-275-96481-8 |pages = 50–}}</ref>

The Dzungar Khanate extracted yasaq (tribute) from their [[Baraba Tatars|Baraba Muslim]] underlings. Converting to Orthodox Christianity and becoming Russian subjects was a tactic by the Baraba to find an excuse not to pay yasaq to the Dzungars.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Frank  |first=Allen J. |last2= |first2= |date= 1 avril 2000|title= Varieties of Islamization in Inner Asia The case of the Baraba Tatars, 1740-1917 |url=https://monderusse.revues.org/pdf/46 |journal=Cahiers du monde russe |publisher=Éditions de l’EHESS|volume= |issue= |pages=252-254 |doi=10.4000/monderusse.46 |ISSN=1777-5388|isbn= 2-7132-1361-4 |access-date= }}</ref>

The [[Khakas people|Yenisei Kirghiz]] ([[Khakas people]]) were made to pay tribute in a treaty concluded between the Dzungars and Russians in 1635.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=8FVsWq31MtMC&pg=PA89#v=onepage&q&f=false Millward 2007], p. 89.</ref> The Dzungar Oirat [[Kalmyks]] coerced the Yenisei Kirghiz into submission.<ref>{{cite book|title=Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&pg=PA611&dq=kirghiz+kipchak+dzungars&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CCAQ6AEwAWoVChMIq9uerNHIyAIVwmk-Ch2EVABb#v=onepage&q=kirghiz%20kipchak%20dzungars&f=false|date=6 April 2010|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-08-087775-4|pages=611–}}</ref><ref name="BrownAsher2006">{{cite book|author1=E. K. Brown|author2=R. E. Asher|author3=J. M. Y. Simpson|title=Encyclopedia of language & linguistics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1D8OAQAAMAAJ&q=kirghiz+kipchak+dzungars&dq=kirghiz+kipchak+dzungars&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CCUQ6AEwAmoVChMIq9uerNHIyAIVwmk-Ch2EVABb|year=2006|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-08-044299-0|page=224}}</ref>

Some of the Yenisei Kirghiz were relocated into the Dzungar Khanate by the [[Dzungars]], and then the Qing moved them from [[Dzungaria]] to northeastern China in 1761, where they became known as the [[Fuyu Kyrgyz language|Fuyu Kyrgyz]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=AzG5llo3YCMC&pg=PA110#v=onepage&q&f=false Tchoroev (Chorotegin) 2003], p. 110.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=LbmP_1KIQ_8C&pg=PA113#v=onepage&q&f=false Pozzi & Janhunen & Weiers 2006, p. 113.]</ref><ref name="StaryPozzi2006">{{cite book|author1=Giovanni Stary|author2=Alessandra Pozzi|author3=Juha Antero Janhunen |author4=Michael Weiers |title=Tumen Jalafun Jecen Aku: Manchu Studies in Honour of Giovanni Stary|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LbmP_1KIQ_8C&pg=PA112#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=2006|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=978-3-447-05378-5|pages=112–}}</ref> Sibe Bannermen were stationed in Dzungaria while Northeastern China (Manchuria) was where some of the remaining Öelet Oirats were deported to.<ref name="Janhunen1996">{{cite book|author=Juha Janhunen|title=Manchuria: An Ethnic History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vfJiAAAAMAAJ&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=pacified|year=1996|publisher=Finno-Ugrian Society|isbn=978-951-9403-84-7|page=112}}</ref> The Nonni basin was where Oirat Öelet deportees were settled. The Yenisei Kirghiz were deported along with the Öelet.<ref name="Janhunen1996 2">{{cite book|author=Juha Janhunen|title=Manchuria: An Ethnic History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vfJiAAAAMAAJ&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=Oelet|year=1996|publisher=Finno-Ugrian Society|isbn=978-951-9403-84-7|pages=111-112}}</ref> Chinese and Oirat replaced Oirat and Kirghiz during Manchukuo as the dual languages of the Nonni-based Yenisei Kirghiz.<ref name="Janhunen1996 3">{{cite book|author=Juha Janhunen|title=Manchuria: An Ethnic History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vfJiAAAAMAAJ&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=Oirat|year=1996|publisher=Finno-Ugrian Society|isbn=978-951-9403-84-7|page=59}}</ref>

=== Rivalry with Khalkha ===
At first the Khalkhas and Oirats were in league, bound by the provisions of the Mongol-Oirat code.<ref>David Sneath ''The headless state'', p.183</ref> In order to cement this union, Galdan attempted to ally with Zasaghtu Khan Shira who lost part of his subjects to [[Tüsheet Khan|Tushiyetu Khan]] Chakhundorji, and moved his [[ordo (palace)|ordo]] near the [[Altai Range]]. Tushiyetu Khan attacked the right wing of the Khalkhas and killed Shira in 1687. Galdan dispatched troops under his younger brother Dorji-jav against the Tushiyetu Khan the next year, but they were eventually defeated and Dorji-jav was killed in the ensuing battle. Chakhundorji murdered Degdeehei Mergen Ahai of the Zasaghtu Khan who was on the way to Galdan. The Qing court intervened and called off the Mongolian aristocrats to assemble a conference.

To avenge the death of his brother and expand his influence over other [[Mongol]] areas, Galdan strategically prepared for a war with Khalkha. Galdan established a friendly relationship with the Russians who were at war with Tushiyetu Khan over territories near [[Lake Baikal]] in northern Khalkha. Bonded by a common interest in defeating Khalkha, both Galdan and the Russians simultaneously attacked Khalkha and conquered most of the territories of Khalkha. Armed with superior firearms bought from Russians, Galdan attacked the land of the late Zasaghtu Khan, and advanced to the dominion of Chakhundorji. The [[Siberian Cossacks|Russian Cossacks]] meanwhile attacked and defeated Khalkha's contingent of 10,000 near Lake Baikal. After two bloody battles with the Dzungars near [[Erdene Zuu Monastery]] and Tomor, Chakhundorji and his son Galdandorji fled to the Ongi River.

The Dzungars occupied the Khalkha homeland, and forced the [[Jebtsundamba Khutuktu]] [[Zanabazar]] to flee. The Qing court strengthened its northern border garrisons, and advised the Khalkhas to resist Galdan. After being reinforced by fresh troops, the Tushiyetu Khan Chakhundorji [[counterattack]]ed the Dzungars, and fought with them near Olgoi Lake on August{{nbsp}}3, 1688. The Oirats won after a 3-day battle. Galdan's conquest of Khalkha Mongolia made Zanabazar and Chakhundorji submit to the [[Qing dynasty]] in September of the same year.

=== Galdan's war against Qing ===
{{See also|Dzungar–Qing War}}

By his victory in 1688, Galdan had driven the Khalkhas into the arms of the Qing and made himself a military threat to the Manchus. Unfortunately for Galdan, [[Kangxi Emperor|Kangxi]] was unusually vigorous and warlike. In 1690 the Manchus and Dzungars fought at [[Battle of Ulan Butung|Ulan Butung]] and Galdan withdrew to the north. (The battle was fought 350 kilometers directly north of Peking near the western headwaters of the [[Liao River]] at the southern end of the [[Greater Khingan]] Mountains). The problem with all of these nomad wars was that the Manchu could not maintain a permanent army on the steppe. If the Manchu sent an army the nomads would flee and come back when the Manchu ran out of supplies. In 1696 Galdan was on the upper [[Kerulen]] River east of Ulaanbaatar about 700&nbsp;km northwest of Peking. Kangxi's plan was to personally lead an army northwest to Galdan while sending a second army north from the [[Ordos Region]] to block his escape. Kangxi reached the Kerulen, found Galdan gone and was forced to turn back due to lack of supplies. On the same day that Kangxi turned back (June 12) Galdan blundered into the western army and was disastrously defeated in the [[battle of Jao Modo]] near the upper [[Tuul River]] east of Ulan Bator at [[Zuunmod]]. Galdan's wife, [[Queen Anu|Anu]], was killed and the Manchus captured 20,000 cattle and 40,000 sheep. Galdan fled with his remaining 40 or 50 men. He gathered a few thousand followers who later deserted due to hunger. In 1697 he was in the Altai Mountains near [[Khovd Province|Khovd]] with 300 men when he died suddenly under mysterious circumstances (April 4, 1697). He was succeeded by Tsewang Rabtan who had revolted against him.

=== Intervention in Tibet ===
[[File:Kalmykia 1720.jpg|thumb|The Dzungar and Kalmyk states (a fragment of the map of Russian Empire of Peter The Great, that was created by a Sweden soldier in c. 1725).]]
{{History of Tibet}}

The Dzungars led by [[Tsewang Rabtan]]'s brother Tseren Dondup invaded [[Tibet]] - which was then dominated by the [[Khoshut Khanate]] founded by the [[Khoshut]]s, another Oirat tribe - in 1717, deposed [[Yeshe Gyatso]], a pretender to the position of the Dalai Lama (who had been promoted by [[Lha-bzang Khan]], the titular King of Tibet). The [[5th Dalai Lama]] had encouraged Mongolian lamas to prevent any non-Ge-lugs-pa teaching among the Mongols. The Dzungars soon began to loot [[Lhasa]], thus losing initial Tibetan goodwill towards them. The Qing [[Kangxi Emperor]]  retaliated in 1718, but his military expedition was annihilated by the Dzungars in the [[Battle of the Salween River]], not far from Lhasa.<ref>[[Richardson, Hugh E]]. (1984). ''Tibet and its History''. Second Edition, Revised and Updated, pp. 48-9. Shambhala. Boston & London. ISBN 0-87773-376-7 (pbk)</ref>

Many [[Nyingmapa]] and [[Bonpo]]s were executed and Tibetans visiting Dzungar officials were forced to stick their tongues out so the Dzungars could tell if the person recited constant mantras (which was said to make the tongue black or brown). This allowed them to pick the Nyingmapa and Bonpos, who recited many magic-mantras.<ref>Norbu, Namkhai. (1980). "Bon and Bonpos". ''Tibetan Review'', December, 1980, p. 8.</ref> This habit of sticking one's tongue out as a mark of respect on greeting someone has remained a Tibetan custom until recent times.

A [[Chinese expedition to Tibet (1720)|second and larger expedition]] sent by Kangxi expelled Tsewang Rabtan's force from [[Tibet]] in 1720 and the troops were hailed as liberators. They brought [[7th Dalai Lama|Kälzang Gyatso]] with them from Kumbum to Lhasa and he was installed as the 7th Dalai Lama in 1721.<ref>Richardson, Hugh E. (1984). ''Tibet and its History''. Second Edition, Revised and Updated, pp. 48-9. Shambhala. Boston & London. ISBN 0-87773-376-7 (pbk)</ref>

=== Collapse and Genocide ===
{{See also|Ten Great Campaigns#Campaigns against the Dzungars and the pacification of Xinjiang (1755–59)|Dzungar genocide}}

[[File:Dawachi.jpg|thumb|The last Dzungar Khan [[Dawachi]]]]

At the death of [[Galdan Tseren]] in 1745 the Dzungars appeared still strong. However, the sudden collapse of the Khanate stemmed from Galdan Tseren's sons.<ref>C. P. Atwood ''ibid'', 623</ref> In 1749 Galden Tseren's son Lamdarjaa seized the throne from his younger brother. He was overthrown by his cousin {{Interlanguage link multi|Dawaachi|zh|3=达瓦齐}} and the Khoid noble [[Amursana]]. But they began to fight each other for succession. In 1753 Dawaachi's three relatives ruling the [[Durvud|Dorbed]] and [[Bayads|Bayad]] surrendered to the Qing after their conflict with Dawaachi, and migrated to Khalkha. Amursana of Khoid followed them. In spring 1755, the [[Qing dynasty]] attacked [[Yining City|Kulja]] leading to the capture of the Dzungar Khan, who was handed over by the [[Uqturpan County]] [[Baig|Beg]] [[Khojis]] ({{zh |c = 霍集斯 |labels = no}}). Amarsana requested that he be made Dzungar Khan, but the [[Qianlong Emperor]] would only make him Khan of Khoit, one among four equal Khans.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=8FVsWq31MtMC&pg=PA95&dq=Zunghar+genocide&hl=en&sa=X&ei=jedWU7DIBqe2sASikoG4DA&ved=0CCkQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Zunghar%20genocide&f=false Millward 2007], p. 95.</ref> In summer, Amursanaa along with [[Chingünjav]] led a revolt against the Qing. Over the next two years, the Manchu and Mongol armies of the Qing Dynasty destroyed the remnants of the Dzungar khanate. Their last leader, Prince Amursanaa revolted against the Qing, and fled north to seek refuge with the [[Russians]]. Amursana died there of smallpox. In the spring of 1762 his frozen body was brought to [[Kyakhta]] for the Manchu to see. The Russians then buried it, refusing the Manchu request that it be handed over for posthumous punishment.<ref>G. Patrick March, ''Eastern Destiny: Russian in Asia and the Pacific'', 1996, Chapter 12</ref> To commemorate his military victory, Qianlong established the [[Puning Temple]] Complex of [[Chengde]] in 1755.

The [[Qianlong Emperor]] then ordered [[Dzungar genocide|genocide against the Dzungars]] and moved the remaining Dzungar people to the mainland while at the same time ordering his generals to kill all the men in [[Barkol]] or [[Suzhou District|Suzhou]]. Qianlong divided their wives and children amongst the Qing forces, which consisted of [[Manchu people|Manchu]] [[Eight Banners|Bannermen]].<ref>《大清高宗純皇帝實錄》, 乾隆二十四年</ref><ref>《平定準噶爾方略》</ref> Qing scholar [[Wei Yuan]] estimated the total population of Dzungars before the fall at 600,000 people, or 200,000 households. Oirat officer Saaral betrayed and battled against the Oirats. In a widely cited<ref>{{cite book |last=Lattimore |first=Owen |title = Pivot of Asia; Sinkiang and the inner Asian frontiers of China and Russia |publisher=Little, Brown |year=1950 |page=126}}</ref><ref name="Purdue">{{Harvnb|Perdue|2005 |p = [https://books.google.com/books?id=Yd-2tiB6k-YC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0#PPA283,M1 283]-287}}</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=GXj4a3gss8wC&pg=PA54#v=onepage&q&f=false ed. Starr 2004], p. 54.</ref> account of the war, Wei Yuan wrote that about 40% of the Dzungar households were killed by [[smallpox]], 20% fled to Russia or [[Kazakhs|Kazakh]] tribes, and 30% were killed by the Qing army of the Manchu Bannermen, leaving no [[yurt]]s in an area of several thousands [[Li (length)|li]] except of those who had surrendered.<ref>{{cite book |last = Wei |first = Yuan |authorlink = Wei Yuan |title = 《聖武記》(Military History of the Qing Dynasty) |volume = vol.4 |quote = 計數十萬戶中，先痘死者十之四，繼竄入俄羅斯哈薩克者十之二，卒殲於大兵者十之三。除婦孺充賞外，至今惟來降受屯之厄鲁特若干戶，編設佐領昂吉，此外數千里間，無瓦剌一氊帳。}}</ref> During this war [[Kazakhs]] attacked dispersed Oirats and [[Altay people|Altays]]. Based on this account, Wen-Djang Chu wrote that 80% of the 600,000 or more Dzungars (especially [[Choros]], [[Olots|Olot]], [[Khoid]], [[Baatud]] and [[Zakhchin]]) were destroyed by disease and attack<ref>{{cite book |last = Chu |first = Wen-Djang |title = The Moslem Rebellion in Northwest China 1862-1878 |publisher=Mouton & co. |year = 1966 |page = 1}}</ref> which Michael Clarke described as "the complete destruction of not only the Dzungar state but of the Dzungars as a people."<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www4.gu.edu.au:8080/adt-root/uploads/approved/adt-QGU20061121.163131/public/02Whole.pdf |title = Michael Edmund Clarke, '&#39;In the Eye of Power'&#39; (doctoral thesis), Brisbane 2004, p37 |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=19 February 2013}}</ref> Historian [[Peter Perdue]] attributed the decimation of the Dzungars to an explicit policy of extermination launched by Qianlong, but he also observed signs of a more lenient policy after mid-1757.<ref name="Purdue" /> Mark Levene, a historian whose recent research interests focus on genocide, has stated that the extermination of the Dzungars was "arguably the eighteenth century genocide par excellence."<ref>{{Harvnb|Levene|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=RBgoNN4MG-YC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0#PPA188,M1 188]}}</ref> It was not until generations later that Dzungaria rebounded from the destruction and near liquidation of the Dzungars after the mass slayings of Dzungars.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=bEzNwgtiVQ0C&pg=PA55#v=onepage&q&f=false Tyler 2004], p. 55.</ref>

Anti-Dzungar Uyghur rebels from the Turfan and Hami oases had submitted to Qing rule as vassals and requested Qing help for overthrowing Dzungar rule. Uyghur leaders like [[Emin Khoja]] were granted titles within the Qing nobility, and these Uyghurs helped supply the Qing military forces during the anti-Dzungar campaign.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=DpeQhJ3hcwsC&pg=PA308&dq=Turfan+Khoja+military+contribution+Qing+campaign+Zunghar+Kashgar+Khoja&hl=en&sa=X&ei=ppZqU9v4Ney6yAHa7oCQCQ&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Turfan%20Khoja%20military%20contribution%20Qing%20campaign%20Zunghar%20Kashgar%20Khoja&f=false Kim 2008, p. 308]</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=DpeQhJ3hcwsC&pg=PA134#v=onepage&q&f=false Kim 2008, p. 134]</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=DpeQhJ3hcwsC&pg=PA49#v=onepage&q&f=false Kim 2008, p. 49]</ref> The Qing employed Khoja Emin in its campaign against the Dzungars and used him as an intermediary with Muslims from the Tarim Basin to inform them that the Qing were only aiming to kill Oirats and that they would leave the Muslims alone, and also to convince them to kill the Oirats themselves and side with the Qing since the Qing noted the Muslims' resentment of their former experience under Dzungar rule at the hands of [[Tsewang Rabtan]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=DpeQhJ3hcwsC&pg=PA139#v=onepage&q&f=false Kim 2008], p. 139.</ref>

There were 600,000 [[Khalkha Mongols]] and 1,000,000 Oirats in 1755. According to 2010 estimate 2,500,000 Khalkhas and 520,000 Oirats living in 4 countries. There a few hundreds of Choros people in Mongolia.

The Qing "final solution" of genocide to solve the problem of the Dzungars, made the Manchu Qing sponsored settlement of millions of Han Chinese, Hui, Turkestani Oasis people (Uyghurs) and Manchu Bannermen in Dzungaria possible, since the land was now devoid of Dzungars.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=J4L-_cjmSqoC&pg=PA285&dq=Zunghar+genocide&hl=en&sa=X&ei=ZutWU-yoLOi_sQTcn4CgBg&ved=0CEUQ6AEwBTgK#v=onepage&q=Zunghar%20genocide&f=false Perdue 2009], p. 285.</ref> Professor Stanley W. Toops noted that today's demographic situation is similar to that of the early Qing period in Xinjiang. In northern Xinjiang, the Qing brought in Han, Hui, Uyghur, Xibe, and Kazakh colonists after they exterminated the Oirats in the region, with one third of Xinjiang's total population consisting of Hui and Han in the northern are, while around two thirds were Uyghurs in southern Xinjiang's Tarim Basin.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=GXj4a3gss8wC&pg=PA243#v=onepage&q&f=false ed. Starr 2004], p. 243.</ref><ref name="ddx">{{cite journal|url=http://www.eastwestcenter.org/fileadmin/stored/pdfs/EWCWwp001.pdf |title=Demographics and Development in Xinjiang after 1949 |first=Stanley |last=Toops |date=May 2004 |page=1 |issue=1 |periodical=East-West Center Washington Working Papers |publisher=[[East–West Center]] |deadurl=bot: unknown |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070716193518/http://www.eastwestcenter.org/fileadmin/stored/pdfs/EWCWwp001.pdf |archivedate=16 July 2007 |df=dmy }}</ref> In Dzungaria, the Qing established new cities like Ürümqi and Yining.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=MC6sAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA102#v=onepage&q&f=false Millward 1998], p. 102.</ref> The Qing were the ones who unified Xinjiang and changed its demographic situation.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=FW8SBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA71#v=onepage&q&f=false Liu & Faure 1996], p. 71.</ref> The [[Dzungaria]]n basin, which used to be inhabited by Dzungars, is currently inhabited by Kazakhs.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=bEzNwgtiVQ0C&pg=PA4#v=onepage&q&f=false Tyler 2004], p. 4.</ref> The Dzungar genocide has been compared to the Qing [[Ten Great Campaigns#Suppression of the Jinchuan hill peoples .281747.E2.80.931749.2C 1771.E2.80.931776.29|extermination of the Jinchuan Tibetan people in 1776]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=DUodAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA21#v=onepage&q&f=false Theobald 2013], p. 21.</ref>

The depopulation of northern Xinjiang after the Buddhist Oirats were slaughtered, led to the Qing settling Manchu, Sibo (Xibe), Daurs, Solons, Han Chinese, Hui Muslims, and Turkic Muslim Taranchis in the north, with Han Chinese and Hui migrants making up the greatest number of settlers. Since it was the crushing of the Buddhist Oirats by the Qing which led to promotion of Islam and the empowerment of the Muslim Begs in southern Xinjiang, and migration of Muslim Taranchis to northern Xinjiang, it was proposed by Henry Schwarz that "the Qing victory was, in a certain sense, a victory for Islam".<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=FW8SBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA72#v=onepage&q&f=false Liu & Faure 1996], p. 72.</ref> Xinjiang was a unified defined geographic identity was created and developed by the Qing. It was the Qing who led to Turkic Muslim power in the region increasing since the Mongol power was crushed by the Qing while Turkic Muslim culture and identity was tolerated or even promoted by the Qing.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=FW8SBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA76#v=onepage&q&f=false Liu & Faure 1996], p. 76.</ref>

After the Qing were done conquering Dzungaria in 1759, they proclaimed that the new land which formerly belonged to the Dzungars, was now absorbed into "China" (Dulimbai Gurun) in a Manchu language memorial.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=6qFH-53_VnEC&pg=PA77&dq=Dulimbai+gurun+land&hl=en&sa=X&ei=jEHtUunnIIvksASBzIEQ&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Dulimbai%20gurun%20land&f=false Dunnell 2004], p. 77.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=6qFH-53_VnEC&pg=PA83&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&hl=en&sa=X&ei=iT7tUsrhM4bhyQH_04HYBg&ved=0CDMQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Dulimbai%20gurun&f=false Dunnell 2004], p. 83.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=_qtgoTIAiKUC&pg=PA503&dq=steppes+mountains+rivers+Dzungar+unified+with+china&hl=en&sa=X&ei=5UHtUuvvCcu_sQStu4HYBw&ved=0CCgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=steppes%20mountains%20rivers%20Dzungar%20unified%20with%20china&f=false Elliott 2001], p. 503.</ref> The Qing expounded on their ideology that they were bringing together the "outer" non-Han Chinese like the Inner Mongols, Eastern Mongols, Oirat Mongols, and Tibetans together with the "inner" Han Chinese, into "one family" united in the Qing state, showing that the diverse subjects of the Qing were all part of one family, the Qing used the phrase "Zhong Wai Yi Jia" (中外一家) or "Nei Wai Yi Jia" (內外一家, "interior and exterior as one family"), to convey this idea of "unification" of the different peoples.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=6qFH-53_VnEC&pg=PA77&dq=Dulimbai+gurun+land&hl=en&sa=X&ei=jEHtUunnIIvksASBzIEQ&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Dulimbai%20gurun%20land&f=false Dunnell 2004], pp. 76-77.</ref>

== Leaders of the Dzungar Khanate ==
[[File:Battle of Oroi-Jalatu.jpg|thumb|The massacre of Oroi-Jalatu, 1756. Manchu general Zhao Hui attacked the Dzungars at night in present Wusu]]

* [[Khara Khula]], '''title:''' [[Khong Tayiji]]
* [[Erdeni Batur]], '''title:''' Khong Tayiji
* [[Sengge]], '''title:''' Khong Tayiji
* [[Galdan Boshugtu Khan]], '''titles:''' Khong Tayiji, Boshogtu Khan
* [[Tsewang Rabtan]], '''title:''' Khong Tayiji, Khan
* [[Galdan Tseren]], '''title''': Khong Tayiji 
* [[Tsewang Dorji Namjal]], '''title''': Khong Tayiji
* {{Interlanguage link multi|Lama Dorji|zh|3=喇嘛达尔扎}}, '''title:''' Khong Tayiji
* [[Dawachi]], '''title:''' Khong Tayiji
* ''[[Amursana]]''‡

‡ Note: ''Although Amursana had de facto control of some areas of Dzungaria during 1755–1756, he could never officially become Khan due to the inferior rank of his clan, the [[Khoid]].''

== See also ==
{{Portal|Mongolia|Central Asia|Tibet|History of Imperial China}}
* [[Choros]]
* [[Dzungar people]]
* [[Dzungaria]]
* [[Khoshut Khanate]]
* [[Kalmyk Khanate]]

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist|30em}}

=== Sources ===
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* {{cite book |title = The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China |first = Mark C. |last = Elliott |volume = |edition = illustrated, reprint |year = 2001 |publisher = Stanford University Press |url = https://books.google.com/?id=_qtgoTIAiKUC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |ISBN = 0804746842 |accessdate = 10 March 2014 |ref = {{harvid||}} }}
* {{cite book |title = Saintly Brokers: Uyghur Muslims, Trade, and the Making of Qing Central Asia, 1696--1814 |first = Kwangmin |last = Kim |others = University of California, Berkeley |volume = |edition = |year = 2008 |publisher = ProQuest |url = https://books.google.com/?id=DpeQhJ3hcwsC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |ISBN = 1109101260 |accessdate = 10 March 2014 |ref = {{harvid||}} }}
* {{cite book |title = Unity and Diversity: Local Cultures and Identities in China |first1 = Tao Tao |last1 = Liu |first2 = David |last2 = Faure |volume = |edition = |year = 1996 |publisher = Hong Kong University Press |url = https://books.google.com/?id=FW8SBAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |ISBN = 9622094023 |accessdate = 10 March 2014 |ref = {{harvid||}} }}
* {{cite book |title = Eurasian Crossroads: A History of Xinjiang |first = James A. |last = Millward |volume = |edition = illustrated |year = 2007 |publisher = Columbia University Press |url = https://books.google.com/?id=8FVsWq31MtMC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |ISBN = 0231139241 |accessdate = 22 April 2014 |ref = {{harvid||}} }}
* {{cite book |title = China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia |first = Peter C |last = Perdue |volume = |edition = reprint |year = 2009 |publisher = Harvard University Press |url = https://books.google.com/?id=J4L-_cjmSqoC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |ISBN = 0674042026 |accessdate = 22 April 2014 |ref = {{harvid||}} }}
* {{cite book |title = China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia |first = Peter C |last = Perdue |volume = |edition = illustrated |year = 2005 |publisher = Harvard University Press |url = https://books.google.com/?id=4Zm_Bj6zc7EC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |ISBN = 067401684X |accessdate = 22 April 2014 |ref = {{harvid||}} }}
* {{cite book |title = Xinjiang: China's Muslim Borderland |editor-first = S. Frederick |editor-last = Starr |volume = |edition = illustrated |year = 2004 |publisher = M.E. Sharpe |url = https://books.google.com/?id=GXj4a3gss8wC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |ISBN = 0765613182 |accessdate = 10 March 2014 |ref = {{harvid||}} }}
* {{cite book |title = War Finance and Logistics in Late Imperial China: A Study of the Second Jinchuan Campaign (1771–1776) |first = Ulrich |last = Theobald |volume = |edition = |year = 2013 |publisher = BRILL |url = https://books.google.com/?id=DUodAAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |ISBN = 9004255672 |accessdate = 22 April 2014 |ref = {{harvid||}} }}
* {{cite book |title = Wild West China: The Taming of Xinjiang |first = Christian |last = Tyler |volume = |edition = illustrated, reprint |year = 2004 |publisher = Rutgers University Press |url = https://books.google.com/?id=bEzNwgtiVQ0C&printsec=frontcover&vq=Merchant+jahangir#v=onepage&q&f=false |ISBN = 0813535336 |accessdate = 10 March 2014 |ref = {{harvid||}} }}
* {{cite journal|url=http://mcx.sagepub.com/content/32/1/3.abstract |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140325231543/https://webspace.utexas.edu/hl4958/perspectives/Zhao%20-%20reinventing%20china.pdf |archivedate=25 March 2014 |jstor=20062627 |doi=10.1177/0097700405282349 |title=Reinventing China Imperial Qing Ideology and the Rise of Modern Chinese National Identity in the Early Twentieth Century |journal=Modern China |last1=Zhao |first1=Gang |last2= |first2= |volume=32 |pages=3 |number=Number 1 |date=January 2006 |website= |publisher=Sage Publications |deadurl=yes |accessdate=17 April 2014 |df=dmy }}
* [Хойт С.К. http://www.lib.kalmsu.ru/text/TRUD/Hoit_SK/p001.pdf Последние данные по локализации и численности ойрат] // Проблемы этногенеза и этнической культуры тюрко-монгольских народов. Вып. 2. Элиста: Изд-во КГУ, 2008. стр. 136-157.

== External links ==
* {{Commons category-inline}}

{{Xinjiang topics}}
{{Inner Asia}}

[[Category:Dzungar Khanate| ]]
[[Category:Mongol states]]
[[Category:Inner Asia]]
[[Category:Oirats]]