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{{Infobox military conflict
|image=[[File:Campaign of the Battle of Ain Jalut 1260.svg|300px]]
|caption=
|conflict=Battle of Ain Jalut
|partof=the [[Mongol raids into Palestine]]
|date= 3 September 1260
|place=Near [[Nazareth]], [[Galilee]]<ref name=britannica/>
|result= [[Mamluk]] victory
|combatant1=[[File:Mameluke Flag.svg|22px]] [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk Sultanate]]
|combatant2=[[Mongol Empire]]<br />{{flagicon|Georgia}} [[Kingdom of Georgia]]<br />[[File:Rubenid Flag.svg|22px]] [[Cilician Armenia]]
|commander1=[[File:Mameluke Flag.svg|22px]] [[Saif ad-Din Qutuz]]<br/>[[File:Mameluke Flag.svg|22px]] [[Baibars]]
|commander2=[[Kitbuga]] {{KIA}}
|units1=[[Light cavalry]] and [[mounted archery|horse archer]]s, [[heavy cavalry]], [[infantry]], [[hand cannon]]eers
|units2=Mongol [[lancer]]s and [[horse archer]]s, 500 Cilician Armenian troops, Georgian contingent, local [[Ayyubid]] contingents
|strength1=Unknown; most sources agree or at least note that it was probably numerically much larger than the Mongol force<ref name=crusade/>
|strength2=One Mongol [[Detachment (military)|detachment]] of about 10,000-12,000<ref name=britannica>[http://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Ayn-Jalut Encyclopedia Grammatica]</ref><ref name=crusade>{{cite book | last = John | first = Simon | title = Crusading and warfare in the Middle Ages : realities and representations | publisher = Ashgate Publishing Limited | location = Burlington, VT | year = 2014 | isbn = 9781472407412 }}</ref>
|casualties1=Unknown
|casualties2=Near complete
}}
{{Infobox ancient site
  | name     = Ain Jalut, عين جالوت, מעין חרוד
  |coordinates = {{coord|32.550354|35.356032|display=inline}}
  }}
{{Campaignbox Mongol invasions}}
{{Campaignbox Mongol invasions of Syria}}
The '''Battle of Ain Jalut''' ('''Ayn Jalut''', in [[Arabic]]: {{lang|ar|عين جالوت}}, the "[[Spring of Goliath]]", or '''Harod Spring''', in [[Hebrew]]: {{lang|he|מעין חרוד}}) took place on 3 September 1260 between Muslim [[Bahri Mamluks|Mamluk]]s and the [[Mongol Empire|Mongols]] in the southeastern [[Galilee]], in the [[Jezreel Valley]], not far from the site of [[Zir'in]]. The battle marked the south-westernmost extent of [[Mongol conquests]], and was the first time a Mongol advance had been permanently halted.<ref name="Tschanz">{{Cite web |last=Tschanz |first=David W. |date= |title=Saudi Aramco World : History's Hinge: 'Ain Jalut |url=http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/2007/history.s.hinge.ain.jalut.htm }}</ref> This was blamed on the sudden death of the then-[[Khagan]] [[Möngke Khan]]; an event that forced the Mongol [[Ilkhanate]] [[Hulagu Khan]] to take a large part of his army back with him on the way to Mongolia. This left Hulagu's lieutenant, Kitbuga, with only a small detachment of soldiers.

==Preceding events==
When [[Möngke Khan]] became [[Great Khan]] in 1251, he immediately set out to implement his grandfather [[Genghis Khan]]'s plan for world empire. To lead the task of subduing the nations of the West, he selected his brother, another of Genghis Khan's grandsons, [[Hulagu Khan]].<ref name="man">{{cite book |last=Man |first=John |title=Kublai Khan: From Xanadu to Superpower |year=2006 |publisher=[[Bantam Books| Bantam]] |location=London |isbn=978-0-553-81718-8 |pages=74–87}}</ref>

Assembling the army took five years, and it was not until 1256 that Hulagu was prepared to begin the invasions. Operating from the Mongol base in [[Persia]], Hulagu proceeded south. Möngke Khan had ordered good treatment for those who yielded without resistance, and destruction for those who did not. In this way Hulagu and his army had conquered some of the most powerful and longstanding dynasties of the time. Other countries in the Mongols' path submitted to Mongol authority, and contributed forces to the Mongol army. By the time that the Mongols reached Baghdad, their army included [[Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia|Cilician Armenians]], and even some Frankish forces from the submissive [[Principality of Antioch]]. The [[Hashshashin]] in Persia fell, the 500-year-old [[Abbasid Caliphate]] of [[Baghdad]] was destroyed (see [[Battle of Baghdad (1258)|Battle of Baghdad]]), and so too fell the [[Ayyubid]] dynasty in [[Damascus]]. Hulagu's plan was to then proceed southwards through the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]] towards the [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk Sultanate]], to confront the major Islamic power.<ref name="man"/>

During the Mongol attack on the Mamluks in the Middle East, most of the Mamluks were  [[Kipchaks]], and the [[Golden Horde]]'s supply of Kipchaks replenished the Mamluk armies and helped them fight off the Mongols.<ref>Halperin, Charles J. 2000. “The Kipchak Connection: The Ilkhans, the Mamluks and Ayn Jalut”. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London 63 (2). Cambridge University Press: 229–45. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1559539.</ref>

==Mongol envoys to Egypt==
In 1260, Hulagu sent envoys to [[Qutuz]] in [[Cairo]], demanding his surrender:

{{quote|text=From the King of Kings of the East and West, the Great Khan. To Qutuz the Mamluk, who fled to escape our swords. You should think of what happened to other countries and submit to us. You have heard how we have conquered a vast empire and have purified the earth of the disorders that tainted it. We have conquered vast areas, massacring all the people. You cannot escape from the terror of our armies. Where can you flee? What road will you use to escape us? Our horses are swift, our arrows sharp, our swords like thunderbolts, our hearts as hard as the mountains, our soldiers as numerous as the sand. Fortresses will not detain us, nor armies stop us. Your prayers to God will not avail against us. We are not moved by tears nor touched by lamentations. Only those who beg our protection will be safe. Hasten your reply before the fire of war is kindled. Resist and you will suffer the most terrible catastrophes. We will shatter your [[mosque]]s and reveal the weakness of your [[God in Islam|God]] and then will kill your children and your old men together. At present you are the only enemy against whom we have to march.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tschanz |first=David W. |date= |title=Saudi Aramco World : History's Hinge: 'Ain Jalut |url=http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200704/history.s.hinge.ain.jalut.htm}}</ref>}}

Qutuz responded, however, by killing the envoys and displaying their heads on [[Bab Zuweila]], one of the gates of [[Cairo]].<ref name="man"/>

==The campaign==
The power dynamic then changed due to the death of the Great Khan Möngke on an expedition to [[Yuan Dynasty|China]], requiring Hulagu and other senior Mongols to return home to decide upon his [[Order of succession|successor]]. A potential Great Khan, Hulagu took the majority of his army with him, and left a much smaller force west of the [[Euphrates]] of only around one or two [[Tumen (unit)|tumen]]s (10,000–20,000 men, the size of a modern military [[Division (military)|division]]) under his best general, the [[Nestorian Christian]] [[Naimans|Naiman]] [[Kitbuqa| Kitbuqa Noyan]].<ref>{{cite book |title=The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia |author=René Grousset |publisher=Rutgers University Press |year=1970 |pages=361 &amp; 363 |isbn=0-8135-1304-9}}</ref>

Upon receiving news of Hulagu's departure, Mamluk Sultan Qutuz quickly assembled a large army at Cairo and invaded Palestine.<ref>p.424, 'The Collins Encyclopedia of Military History' (4th edition, 1993), Dupuy & Dupuy,</ref> In late August, Kitbuqa's forces proceeded south from their base at [[Baalbek]], passing to the east of [[Lake Tiberias]] into [[Lower Galilee]].

The Mamluk Sultan Qutuz at that time allied with a fellow Mamluk, [[Baibars]], who chose to ally himself with Qutuz in the face of a greater enemy, after the Mongols captured [[Damascus]] and most of [[Bilad al-Sham]].<ref name="Tschanz"/>

The Mongols, for their part, attempted to form a [[Franco-Mongol alliance]] with (or at least demand the submission of) the remnant of the [[Crusader states|Crusader]] [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]], now centered on [[Akko|Acre]]; but [[Pope Alexander IV]] had forbidden this. Tensions between [[Franks]] and Mongols had also increased when [[Julian de Grenier|Julian of Sidon]] caused an incident which resulted in the death of one of Kitbuqa's grandsons. Angered, Kitbuqa sacked [[Sidon]]. The Barons of Acre and the remainder of the Crusader outposts, contacted by the Mongols, had also been approached by the Mamluks, seeking military assistance against the Mongols.<ref name="Tschanz"/>

Though the Mamluks were the traditional enemies of the Franks, the Barons of Acre recognized the Mongols as the more immediate menace, and so the Crusaders opted for a position of cautious neutrality between the two forces.<ref>Morgan, p. 137.</ref> In an unusual move, they agreed that the Egyptian Mamluks could march north through the Crusader territories unmolested, and even camp to resupply near Acre. When news arrived that the Mongols had crossed the [[Jordan River]], Sultan Qutuz and his forces proceeded southeast toward the spring at Ain Jalut in the [[Jezreel Valley]].<ref name="bartlett-253">Bartlett, p. 253</ref>

==The battle==
{{refimprove section|date=September 2013}}
[[File:Circassian Chief.jpg|thumb| A [[Circassians|Circassian]] chief. By the end of the fourteenth century most of the Mamluk forces were composed of ethnic Circassians. Painted by Sir William Allan in 1843.]]
The first to advance were the Mongols, whose force also included troops from the [[Kingdom of Georgia]] and about 500 troops from the [[Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia]], both of which had submitted to Mongol authority. The Mamluks had the advantage of knowledge of the terrain, and Qutuz capitalized on this by hiding the bulk of his force in the highlands, hoping to bait the Mongols with a smaller force under Baibars.

The two armies fought for many hours, with Baibars most of the time implementing [[hit-and-run tactics]], in order to provoke the Mongol troops and at the same time preserve the bulk of his troops intact. When the Mongols carried out another heavy assault, Baibars – who it is said had laid out the overall strategy of the battle since he had spent much time in that region, earlier in his life, as a fugitive – and his men feigned a final retreat, drawing the Mongols into the highlands to be ambushed by the rest of the Mamluk forces concealed among the trees. The Mongol leader Kitbuqa, already provoked by the constant fleeing of Baibars and his troops, committed a grave mistake; instead of suspecting a trick, Kitbuqa decided to march forwards with all his troops on the trail of the fleeing Mamluks. When the Mongols reached the highlands, Mamluk forces emerged from hiding and began to fire arrows and attack with their cavalry. The Mongols then found themselves surrounded on all sides.

The Mongol army fought very fiercely and very aggressively to break out. Some distance away, Qutuz watched with his private legion. When Qutuz saw the left wing of the Mamluk army almost destroyed by the desperate Mongols seeking an escape route, Qutuz threw away his [[combat helmet]], so that his warriors could recognize him. He was seen the next moment rushing fiercely towards the battlefield yelling "''wa islamah!''" ("Oh my Islam"), urging his army to keep firm, and advanced towards the weakened side, followed by his own unit. The Mongols were pushed back and fled to a vicinity of [[Bisan]], followed by Qutuz's forces, but they managed to reorganize and return to the battlefield, making a successful counterattack. However, the battle shifted in favor of the Mamluks, who now had both the geographic and psychological advantage, and eventually some of the Mongols were forced to retreat.  When the battle ended, the Mamluk [[heavy cavalry]]men had accomplished what had never been done before, beating the Mongols in close combat.<ref name="bartlett-253"/> Kitbuqa and almost the whole Mongol army that had remained in the region perished.

According to Muslim military treatises of the 13th or 14th century, [[hand cannon]] were used by the Mamluk side in the Battle of Ain Jalut to frighten the Tatar armies. If true, this is the earliest known battle where hand cannon were used. Even the compositions of the gunpowder used in these cannon was given.<ref>{{cite web|author1=Ahmad Yousef al-Hassan|authorlink1=Ahmad Y. al-Hassan|title=TRANSFER OF ISLAMIC TECHNOLOGY TO THE WEST[1] PART III Technology Transfer in the Chemical Industries; Transmission of Practical Chemistry|url=https://history-science-technology.com/articles/articles%2072.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161120150335/http://history-science-technology.com/articles/articles%2072.html|archivedate=November 20, 2016|deadurl=no}} Based on article from 2005.</ref><ref name="History-Channel">{{Cite book|title=[[Ancient Discoveries]], Episode 12: Machines of the East|publisher=[[History (U.S. TV channel)|History Channel]]|year=2007}} ([https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PwGfw1YW9Js Part 4] and [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0R3ZbzhRp_k Part 5])</ref>

==Aftermath==
On the way back to Cairo after the victory at Ain Jalut, Qutuz was assassinated by several [[emir]]s in a conspiracy led by [[Baibars]].<ref>Although medieval historians give conflicting accounts, modern historians assign responsibility for Qutuz's assassination to Baibars, as Baibars had been promised Syria as a reward for his efforts in Ain Jalut but when it was time to claim his prize, Qutuz commanded him to be patient. See Perry (p. 150), Amitai-Preiss (p. 47, "a conspiracy of amirs, which included Baybars and was probably under his leadership"), Holt et al. (Baibars "came to power with [the] regicide [of Qutuz] on his conscience"), and Tschanz. For further discussion, see article on "[[Qutuz]]".</ref> Baibars became the new Sultan. His successors would go on to capture the last of the [[Crusader states]] in [[The Holy Land]] by 1291.

Internecine conflict prevented Hulagu Khan from being able to bring his full power against the Mamluks to avenge the pivotal defeat at Ain Jalut. [[Berke]] Khan, the Khan of the [[Golden Horde]] to the north of Ilkhanate, had converted to Islam, and watched with horror as his cousin destroyed the [[Abbasid Caliph]], the spiritual head of Islam. Muslim historian [[Rashid-al-Din Hamadani]] quoted Berke as sending the following message to Mongke Khan, protesting the attack on Baghdad (not knowing Mongke had died in China): "He ([[Hulagu Khan|Hulagu]]) has sacked all the cities of the [[Muslim]]s, and has brought about the death of the [[Caliph]]. With the help of [[Allah|God]] I will call him to account for so much innocent blood."<ref>''The Mongol Warlords'' quotes Rashid al Din's record of Berke Khan's pronouncement; this quote is also found in Amitai-Preiss's ''The Mamluk-Ilkhanid War''.</ref> The Mamluks, learning through spies that Berke was both a Muslim and not fond of his cousin, were careful to nourish their ties to him and his Khanate.

After the Mongol succession was finally settled, with [[Kublai]] as the last Great Khan, Hulagu returned to his lands by 1262, and massed his armies to attack the Mamluks and avenge Ain Jalut. However, Berke Khan initiated a series of raids in force which lured Hulagu north, away from the [[Levant]] to meet him. Hulagu suffered severe defeat in an attempted invasion north of the [[Caucasus]] in 1263. This was the first open war between Mongols, and signaled the end of the unified empire.

Hulagu was able to send only a small army of two tumens in his sole attempt to attack the Mamluks after Ain Jalut, and it was repulsed. Hulagu Khan died in 1265 and was succeeded by his son [[Abaqa]].

==Battle of Ain Jalut in fiction==
[[Robert Shea]]'s historical novel ''[[The Saracen]]'' deals extensively with the Battle of Ain Jalut and the subsequent assassination of Sultan Qutuz.

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
* [[Al-Maqrizi]], Al Selouk Leme'refatt Dewall al-Melouk, Dar al-kotob, 1997.
* Bohn, Henry G. (1848) ''The Road to Knowledge of the Return of Kings, Chronicles of the Crusades'', AMS Press, New York, 1969 edition, a translation of ''Chronicles of the Crusades : being contemporary narratives of the crusade of Richard Coeur de Lion by Richard of Devizes and Geoffrey de Vinsauf and of the crusade of St. Louis, by Lord John de Joinville''.
*{{cite book|author=Amitai-Preiss, Reuven|title=Mongols and Mamluks: The Mamluk-Ilkhanid War, 1260–1281|year=1995|publisher=Cambridge University Press, Cambridge|isbn=978-0-521-46226-6}}
* {{cite book|author=Bartlett, W. B.|title=God Wills It! - An Illustrated History of the Crusades|publisher=Sutton Publishing Limited|year=1999|isbn=0-7509-1880-2}}
*{{cite book|author=Eric H. Cline|title=The Battles of Armageddon|publisher=[[University of Michigan Press]]|year=2002|isbn=0-472-06739-7}}
*{{cite book|author=Robert Cowley|author2=Geoffrey Parker|title=The Reader's Companion to Military History|publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin]]|year=2001|isbn=978-0-618-12742-9| url=https://books.google.com/?id=qOEu4ALwR-IC&pg=PA44&dq=%22Ayn+Jalut,+Battle+of%22|page=44|accessdate=2008-03-26}}
*{{cite book|author=J. D. Fage|author2=Roland Anthony Oliver|title=The Cambridge History of Africa|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=1975|isbn=0-521-20981-1}}
*Grousset, René (1991), ''Histoire des Croisades'', III, Editions Perrin, ISBN 2-262-02569-X.
*Hildinger, Erik. (1997). ''Warriors of the Steppe.'' Sarpedon Publishing. ISBN 0-306-81065-4
*Holt, P. M.; Lambton, Ann; Lewis, Bernard (1977) ''The Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 1A: The Central Islamic Lands from Pre-Islamic Times to the First World War'', Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-29135-4.
*Morgan, David (1990) ''The Mongols''. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-17563-6
*Nicolle, David, (1998). ''The Mongol Warlords'' Brockhampton Press.
*Perry, Glenn E. (2004) ''The History of Egypt'', Greenwood Publishing Group, ISBN 978-0-313-32264-8.
*Reagan, Geoffry, (1992). ''The Guinness Book of Decisive Battles ''. Canopy Books, NY.
*Saunders, J. J. (1971) ''The History of the Mongol Conquests'', Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd. ISBN 0-8122-1766-7
*Sicker, Martin (2000) ''The Islamic World in Ascendancy: From the Arab Conquests to the Siege of Vienna'', Praeger Publishers.
*Soucek, Svatopluk (2000) ''A History of Inner Asia'', Cambridge University Press.
* {{cite news|author=Tschanz, David W.|publisher=[[Saudi Aramco World]]|title=History's Hinge: 'Ain Jalut|date=July–August 2007|url=http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200704/history.s.hinge.ain.jalut.htm|accessdate=2007-09-24| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20070912161811/http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200704/history.s.hinge.ain.jalut.htm| archivedate= 12 September 2007 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}


[[Category:Battles involving the Mongols|Ain Jalut 1260]]
[[Category:Medieval Israel]]
[[Category:Medieval Palestine]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Ain Jalut 1260]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1260|Ain Jalut]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Kingdom of Georgia|Ain Jalut]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia|Ain Jalut]]
[[Category:Egypt–Mongolia relations]]
[[Category:1260 in the Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)]]
[[Category:1260 in the Kingdom of Georgia]]
[[Category:1260 in the Mongol Empire]]
[[Category:Hulagu Khan]]
[[Category:September 1260 events]]