Avar Khaganate sayfasının kaynağını görüntüle

{{For|the khanate in the North Caucasus|Avar Khanate}}
{{Infobox Former Country
|conventional_long_name = Avar Khaganate
|common_name  = Avar Khaganate
|continent    = Europe
|region       = [[Central Europe]]
|status       = Empire
|government_type = [[Khanate]]
|common_languages = [[Turkic language]], [[Proto-Slavic]] (<small>''lingua franca''</small>)<ref name=Curta2004>{{Cite journal|last1=Curta|first1=Florin|year=2004|title=The Slavic ''lingua franca'' (Linguistic Notes of an Archeologist Turned Historian)|url=http://www.academia.edu/227792/The_Slavic_lingua_franca_Linguistic_notes_of_an_archaeologist_turned_historian_|format=PDF|journal=East Central Europe/L'Europe du Centre-Est|volume=31|issue=1|pages=132}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ancient.eu/Avars/|title=Avars|publisher=}}</ref>
|capital      = The "[[Avar Ring]]"
|religion     = [[Tengrism]]
|year_start   = 567
|year_end     =  after 822<ref>Carl Waldman & Catherine Mason, 2006, ''Encyclopedia of European Peoples, Volume 2'', New York: Infobase Publishing, p. 769.</ref>
|p1           = Lombards
|flag_p1      = 
|p2           = Kingdom of the Gepids
|flag_p2      =
|s1           = Frankish Empire
|flag_s1      = Frankish Empire 481 to 814-en.svg
|s2          = First Bulgarian Empire
|image_s2    = 
|image_map    = Historical map of the Balkans around 582-612 AD.jpg
|image_map_caption = Avar Khaganate around 582–612 AD.
|leader1      = [[Bayan I]] (562–602)<br />
[[Bayan II]] (602–617)
<br /> (''Names&nbsp;unknown''&nbsp;617&nbsp;–&nbsp;c.&nbsp;802)
<br />[[Zodan]] ([[flourished|fl.]] 803)
<br />[[Theodore Abu-Qurrah|Theodorus]] (? – 805)<ref>Some sources claim that Khagan Theodorus and his predecessor Zodan were one and the same; that is, Zodan assumed the name Thedours after converting to Christianity.</ref>
<br />[[Abraham (Avar khagan)|Abraham]] ( fl. 805)
<br />[[Isaac (Avar khagan)|Isaac]] (? – ?)<ref>The name of Khagan Isaac appears to have been corrupted into Latin as ''Canizauci princeps Avarum'' ("Khagan Isaac, Prince of the Avars").</ref>
|year_leader1 =
|title_leader = [[Khagan]]
|today = {{flag|Hungary}}<br/>{{flag|Bulgaria}}<br/>{{flag|Romania}}<br/>{{flag|Ukraine}}<br/>{{flag|Slovakia}}<br/>{{flag|Slovenia}}<br/>{{flag|Croatia}}<br/>{{flag|Czech Republic}}<br/>{{flag|Poland}}<br/>{{flag|Austria}}<br/>{{flag|Serbia}}}}

The '''Avar Khaganate''' was a [[khanate]] established in the [[Pannonian Basin]] region in 567 by the [[Pannonian Avars|Avars]], a [[Eurasian nomads|nomadic]] people of uncertain origins and ethno-linguistic affiliation.<ref name="EB_Avar">{{cite web |url=http://global.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/45428/Avar |title=Avar |last1= |first1= |last2= |first2= |date= |website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica Online]] |publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica (company)|Encyclopædia Britannica]] |access-date=May 14, 2015 |quote=Avar,  one of a people of undetermined origin and language...}}</ref><ref name=WM>{{cite book |last=Waldman |first=Carl |last2=Mason |first2=Catherine |authorlink1= |authorlink2= |ref=harv |title=Encyclopedia of European Peoples |language= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kfv6HKXErqAC |accessdate=14 May 2015 |year=2006 |publisher=[[Infobase Publishing]] |location= |isbn=1-4381-2918-1 |pages=46–49 }}</ref> As the [[Göktürk Empire]] expanded westwards, the Khagan [[Bayan I]] led a group of Avars and [[Bulgars]] out of their reach, eventually settling around 568 in what used to be the Roman province of [[Pannonia]].

==History==

===Arrival in Europe===
In 557 the Avars sent an embassy to [[Constantinople]], marking their first contact with the [[Byzantine Empire]]{{mdash}}presumably from the northern [[Caucasus]]. In exchange for gold, they agreed to subjugate the "unruly ''gentes''" on behalf of the Byzantines. They conquered and incorporated various nomadic tribes{{mdash}}[[Kutrigurs]] and [[Sabir people|Sabirs]]{{mdash}}and defeated the [[Antes people|Antes]]. By 562 the Avars controlled the lower Danube basin and the steppes north of the Black Sea.<ref>[[Walter Pohl]], "Conceptions of Ethnicity in Early Medieval Studies", ''Debating the Middle Ages: Issues and Readings'', ed. Lester K. Little and Barbara H. Rosenwein, (Blackwell), 1998, pp 13–24) p. 18 ([http://www.kroraina.com/bulgar/pohl_etnicity.html On-line text]).</ref> By the time they arrived in the [[Balkans]], the Avars formed a heterogeneous group of about 20,000 horsemen.{{sfn|Curta|2001}} After the Byzantine Emperor [[Justinian I]] (reigned 527–565) bought them off, they pushed northwestwards into [[Germania]]. However, [[Franks|Frankish]] opposition halted the Avars' expansion in that direction.

Seeking rich pastoral lands, the Avars initially demanded land south of the [[Danube River]] in present-day [[Bulgaria]], but the Byzantines refused, using their contacts with the [[Göktürks]] as a threat against Avar aggression.<ref>{{cite book
| last = Evans | first  = James Allan Stewart | title= The Emperor Justinian And The Byzantine Empire| url= https://books.google.com/books?id=xDNv6qZ_I-IC | accessdate = 2013-01-24 | series = Greenwood Guides to Historic Events of the Ancient World | year= 2005 | publisher= Greenwood Publishing Group| isbn = 9780313325823
| page= xxxv| quote= An Avar embassy first appeared in Constantinople in 558, asking for land within the empire and calling for an annual subsidy. Justinian granted them a subsidy, but for land he directed them elsewhere.}}</ref> The Avars turned their attention to the [[Carpathian Plain]] and to the natural defenses it afforded.<ref>
''History of Transylvania'', Volume I. László Makkai, András Mócsy. Columbia University Press. 2001</ref> However, the Carpathian basin was then occupied by the [[Gepids]]. In 567 the Avars formed an alliance with the [[Lombards]]{{mdash}}enemies of the Gepids{{mdash}}and together they destroyed much of the Gepid Kingdom. The Avars then persuaded the Lombards to move into [[Kingdom of the Lombards|northern Italy]], an invasion that marked the last Germanic mass-movement in the [[Migration Period]].{{citation needed|date=May 2014}}

Continuing their successful policy of turning the various barbarians against each other, the Byzantines persuaded the Avars to attack the [[Sclaveni|Sclavenes]] in [[Scythia Minor]] (modern Dobrogea); their land was rich with goods and had never been conquered before.{{sfn|Curta|2001}}{{page needed|date=December 2015}} After devastating much of the Sclavenes' land, the Avars returned to Pannonia after many of the Khagan's subjects deserted to the Byzantine Emperor. By 600 the Avars had established a nomadic empire ruling over a multitude of peoples and stretching from modern-day Austria in the west to the [[Pontic-Caspian steppe]] in the east.{{citation needed|date=May 2014}}

===Early Avar Period (580–670)===
 [[File:Avari pljene balkanske zemlje, K. Mandrović (1885).jpg|thumb|left|Avars plundering Balkan lands.]]
By about 580, the Avar Khagan [[Bayan I]] had established supremacy over most of [[South Slavs|Slavic]], [[Bulgars|Bulgar]], Vlachs and [[Germanic tribes]] living in Pannonia and the Carpathian Basin.<ref>Pohl 1998:18.</ref> When the Byzantine Empire was unable to pay subsidies or hire Avar mercenaries, the Avars raided their [[Balkan]] territories. According to [[Menander Protector|Menander]], Bayan commanded an army of 10,000 Kutrigur Bulgars and sacked [[Dalmatia]] in 568, effectively cutting the Byzantine terrestrial link with North Italy and Western Europe.  By 582, the Avars had [[Siege of Sirmium|captured Sirmium]], an important fort in Pannonia. When the Byzantines refused to increase the stipend amount as requested by Bayan's son and successor [[Bayan II]] (from 584), the Avars proceeded to capture [[Singidunum]] and [[Viminacium]]. They suffered setbacks, however, during [[Maurice's Balkan campaigns]] in the 590s. [[Battles of Viminacium|After being defeated]] in their homeland, some Avars defected to the Byzantines in 602,<ref>Walter Pohl, ''Die Awaren'' (Munich) 2.ed.2002., page 158.</ref> but [[Emperor Maurice]] decided not to return home as was customary. He maintained his army camp beyond the Danube throughout the winter and the resulting hardships caused the army to revolt. This gave the Avars a desperately needed respite. They attempted an invasion of northern Italy in 610. The ongoing Byzantine civil war prompted a [[Roman-Persian Wars#Climax|Persian invasion]] and after 615, the Avars enjoyed a free hand in the undefended Balkans. 
{{quote|Each year, the Huns [Avars] came to the Slavs, to spend the winter with them; then they took the wives and daughters of the Slavs and slept with them, and among the other mistreatments [already mentioned] the Slavs were also forced to pay levies to the Huns.  But the sons of the Huns, who were [then] raised with the wives and daughters of these Wends could not finally endure this oppression anymore and refused obedience to the Huns and began, as already mentioned, a rebellion.  When now the Wendish army went against the Huns, the [aforementioned] merchant Samo accompanied the same. And so the Samo’s bravery proved itself in wonderful ways and a huge mass of Huns fell to the sword of the Wends. |''[[Chronicle of Fredegar]]'', Book IV, Section 48, written [[circa]] 642}} While negotiating with Emperor [[Heraclius]] beneath the walls of Constantinople in 617, the Avars launched a surprise attack. While they were unable to capture the city centre they pillaged the suburbs of the city and took 270,000 captives. Payments in gold and goods to the Avars reached the record sum of 200,000 ''[[solidi]]'' shortly before 626.<ref>Walter Pohl, ''Die Awaren'' (Munich) 1.ed.1988.</ref>

In 626, the [[siege of Constantinople (626)|siege of Constantinople]] by a joint Avar-[[Sassanid]] force failed. Following this defeat, the political and military power of the Avars declined. Byzantines and Frankish sources documented a war between the Avars and their western Slav clients, the [[Wends]].{{sfn|Curta|2001}} In the 630s, [[Samo]], the ruler of the first historically known Slavic polity known as Samo's Tribal Union or Samo's realm, increased his authority over lands to the north and west of the Khaganate at the expense of the Avars, ruling until his death in 658.<ref>The fate of Samo's empire after his death is unclear; it is generally assumed to have disappeared. Archaeological findings show that the Avars returned to their previous territories{{mdash}}at least to southernmost part of present-day [[Slovakia]]{{mdash}}and entered into a symbiotic relationship with the Slavs, whereas to the north of the Avar empire was purely Wends territory. The first specific knowledge of the presence of Slavs and Avars in this area is the existence in the late 8th century of the Moravian and [[Principality of Nitra|Nitrian]] principalities (see [[Great Moravia]]) that were attacking the Avars, and the defeat of the Avars by the Franks under [[Charlemagne]] in 799 or 802–03.</ref> At about the time of Samo's realm, the [[Kubrat]] of the [[Dulo clan]] led a successful uprising to end Avar authority over the [[Pannonian Plain]]; he established what the Byzantines used to call [[Patria Onoguria]], "the homeland of Onogurs". The civil war, possibly a succession struggle in Onoguria between the joint Kutrigur and Utigur forces, raged from 631 to 632. The power of the Kutrigur forces was shattered and the Avars came under the control of Patria Onoguria. The ''[[Chronicle of Fredegar]]'' recorded that 9,000 of the Kutrigur sought asylum and fled to modern-day [[Bavaria]], but were killed by King [[Dagobert I]] of the Franks. Some of the Kutrigurs remained in Onoguria and came to be known as [[Cozariks]] (a people who remained in [[Transylvania]] as late as the time of [[Menumorut]] in the late 9th Century). Following Khan Kubrat's death, they would fight for control, leading to the [[battle of Ongal]] when the Utigurs were forced south. Those remaining between Transylvania and the Ukraine were assimilated by the [[Khazars]] while the Cozariks extended their control north up the Volga River where the state of [[Volga Bulgaria]] would emerge.{{citation needed|date=May 2014}}

===Middle (670–720) and Late (720–804) Avar periods===
With the death of [[Samo]], some Slavic tribes again came under Avar rule. Khan Kubrat died in 665 and was succeeded by Khan [[Batbayan]] of [[Old Great Bulgaria]]. By 670, the Khazars had broken the unity of the Bulgar confederation, causing some of the Utigur Bulgars to relocate their capital to the west. The ''[[Chronicon Pictum|Viennese chronicle]]'' records that in 677, the "Hungar"/(Onogur Bulgar) ethnicon had established itself decisively in Pannonia. According to the ''[[Miracles of Saint Demetrius]]'' the Avar-Slavic alliance from northern Carpathia forced the Bulgars south out of western Onoguria (Sirmium) at about the same time that the Battle of Ongal took place south of the eastern Carpathians. The new ethnic element marked by hair clips for pigtails; curved, single-edged sabres; broad, symmetrical bows marks the middle Avar-Bulgar period (670–720). The Onogur Bulgars under a [[Kuber]] leader expelled from western Onoguria (Sirmium) moved south, settling in the present-day region of [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]]. The Onogur-Bulgars, led by Khan [[Asparukh of Bulgaria|Asparukh]]{{mdash}}the father of Khan [[Tervel of Bulgaria|Tervel]]{{mdash}}settled permanently along the Danube (c. 679–681), expanding the [[First Bulgarian Empire]] from [[Onogur, Bulgaria]]. Although the Avar empire had diminished to half its original size, the new Avar-Slav alliance consolidated their rule west from the central parts of the mid-Danubian basin and extended their sphere of influence west to the [[Viennese Basin]]. New regional centers, such as those near [[Ozora]] and [[Igar]]{{mdash}}[[Fehér County (former)|county Fehér]] in Hungary{{mdash}}appeared. This strengthened the Avars' power base, although most of the Balkans now lay in the hands of [[Slavs|Slavic tribes]] since neither the Avars nor Byzantines were able to reassert control.{{citation needed|date=May 2014}}

A new type of ceramics{{spaced ndash}}the so-called "Devínská-Nová Ves" pottery{{spaced ndash}}emerged at the end of the 7th century in the region between the Middle Danube and the Carpathians.{{sfn|Barford|2001|p = 78}} These vessels were similar to the hand-made pottery of the previous period, but wheel-made items were also found in "Devínská-Nová Ves" sites.{{sfn|Barford|2001|p = 78}} Large inhumation cemeteries found at [[Holiare]], [[Nové Zámky]] and other places in Slovakia, [[Hungary]] and Serbia from the period beginning around 690 show that the settlement network of the Carpathian Basin became more stable in the [[Late Avar]] period.{{sfn|Barford|2001|p = 79}}{{sfn|Curta|2006|pp = 92–93}} The most popular Late Avar motifs{{spaced ndash}}[[griffin]]s and [[tendril]]s decorating belts, mounts and a number of other artifacts connected to warriors{{spaced ndash}}may either represent nostalgia for the lost nomadic past or evidence a new wave of nomads arriving from the Pontic steppes at the end of the 7th century.{{sfn|Barford|2001|p = 79}}{{sfn|Curta|2006|p = 92}} According to historians who accept the latter theory, the immigrants may have been either [[Onogurs]]{{sfn|Kristó|1996|p = 93}} or [[Alans]].{{sfn|Havlík|2004|p = 228}} [[Anthropological]] studies of the skeletons point at the presence of a population with [[mongoloid]] features.{{sfn|Barford|2001|p = 79}}

The Khaganate in the Middle and Late periods was a product of cultural symbiosis between Slavic and original Avar elements with a Slavic language as a [[lingua franca]] or the most common language.<ref>Curta, Florin (2004), "The Slavic Lingua Franca. Linguistic Notes of an Archaeologist Turned Historian." (PDF), East Central Europe/L'Europe du Centre-Est 31 (1): 125–148,</ref>

In the 7th century, the Avar Khaganate opened a door for Slavic demographic and linguistic expansion to Adriatic and Aegean regions.{{citation needed|date=May 2014}}

In the early 8th century, a new [[archaeological culture]] the so-called "griffin and tendril" culture{{mdash}}appeared in the Carpathian basin. Some theories, including the “double conquest” theory of archaeologist [[Gyula László]], attribute it to the arrival of new settlers, such as early [[Magyars]], but this is still under debate. Hungarian archaeologists [[Laszló Makkai]] and [[András Móczy]] attribute this culture to an internal evolution of Avars resulting from the integration of the Bulgar émigrés from the previous generation of the 670s. According to Makkai and Mócsy, "the material culture{{mdash}}art, clothing, equipment, weapons{{mdash}}of the late Avar/Bulgar period evolved autonomously from these new foundations". Many regions that had once been important centers of the Avar empire had lost their significance while new ones arose. Although Avaric [[material culture]] found over much of the northern Balkans may indicate an existing Avar presence, it probably represents the presence of independent Slavs who had adopted Avaric customs.<ref>László Makkai and András Mócsy, editors, 2001. History of Transylvania, II.4 "The period of Avar rule"</ref>

===Collapse===
[[File:Avar settlement area.jpg|thumb|right|The Avar settlement area from the 7th to the 9th century, according to Éva Garam]]

The gradual decline of Avar power accelerated to a rapid fall within a decade. A series of Frankish campaigns in the 790s, beginning in 791, ended with the conquest of the Avar realm after eight years. The 791 campaign ended successfully, although no pitched battle was fought.{{sfn|Schutz|2004|p=61}} Avars had fled before the Carolingian army arriving by the Danube, while disease left most of the Avar horses dead.{{sfn|Schutz|2004|p=61}} Tribal infighting began, showing the weakness of the khaganate.{{sfn|Schutz|2004|p=61}} The Franks had been supported by Slavs, who established polities on former Avar territory.{{sfn|Schutz|2004|pp=61-62}} One of Charlemagne's sons captured a large, fortified encampment known as "the Ring", which contained much of the spoils from earlier Avar campaigns.<ref>Victor Duruy, The History of the Middle Ages, p. 446</ref> By 796, the Avar chieftains had surrendered and accepted Christianity.{{sfn|Schutz|2004|p=61}} Pannonia was conquered.{{sfn|Sinor|1990|pp=218-220}} According to the ''[[Annales Regni Francorum]]'', Avars began to submit to the Franks from 796 onwards. The song "''[[De Pippini regis Victoria Avarica]]''" celebrating the defeat of the Avars at the hands of [[Pepin of Italy]] in 796 still survives. The Franks baptized many Avars and integrated them into the [[Frankish Empire]].<ref>''...(sc. Avaros) autem, qui obediebant fidei et baptismum sunt consecuti...''</ref> A growing amount of archaeological evidence in [[Transdanubia]] also suggests an Avar population in the Carpathian Basin in the very late 9th century.<ref name='Olajos'/> In 799, some Avars revolted.{{sfn|Schutz|2004|p=62}}

According to [[Constantine VII]]'s work ''[[De Administrando Imperio]]'' (10th century), a group of Croats separated from the [[White Croats]] who lived in [[White Croatia]] and arrived by their own will, or were called by the Byzantine Emperor [[Heraclius]] (610-641), to [[Dalmatia (Roman province)|Dalmatia]] where they fought and defeated the Avars, and eventually organized their own [[Duchy of Croatia|principality]].

In 804, the First Bulgarian Empire conquered the southeastern Avar lands of Transylvania and southeastern Pannonia up to the [[Middle Danube River]], and many Avars became subjects of the Bulgarian Empire. Khagan [[Theodore Abu-Qurrah|Theodorus]], a convert to Christianity, died after asking Charlemagne for help in 805; he was succeeded by Khagan [[Abraham (Avar khagan)|Abraham]], who was baptized as the new Frankish client (and should not be assumed from his name alone to have been [[Kabar|Khavar]] rather than [[Pseudo-Avar]]). Abraham was succeeded by Khagan (or [[Tudun]]) [[Isaac (Avar khagan)|Isaac]] (Latin ''Canizauci''),  about whom little is known. The Franks turned the Avar lands under their control into a [[March (territory)|military march]]. The [[March of Pannonia]]{{mdash}}the eastern half of the [[Avar March]]{{mdash}}was then granted to the Slavic Prince [[Pribina]], who established the [[Balaton principality]] in 840. It continued to exist in the west until it was divided between the [[March of Carinthia|Carinthia]]n and [[March of Austria|Eastern]] marches in 871.{{citation needed|date=May 2014}}

According to Pohl, an Avar presence in Pannonia is certain in 871, but thereafter the name is no longer used by chroniclers. Pohl wrote, "It simply proved impossible to keep up an Avar identity after Avar institutions and the high claims of their tradition had failed".<ref>Pohl 1998:19.</ref> Although, [[Regino of Prüm|Regino]] wrote about them at the year of 889.<ref name='Olajos'/><ref>"''Et primo quidem Pannoniorum et Avarum solitudines pererrantes''"</ref> The growing number of archaeological evidence in [[Transdanubia]] also presumes an Avar population in the Carpathian Basin in the very late 9th century.<ref name='Olajos'/> Archaeological findings suggest a substantial, late Avar presence on the Great Hungarian Plain, however it is difficult to determine their proper chronology.<ref name='Olajos'/>

Byzantine records, including the "''[[Notitia episcopatuumî]]''", the "''[[Additio patriarchicorum thronorumî]]''" by [[Neilos Doxopatres]], the "''Chronica''" by [[Petrus Alexandrinus]] and the "''[[Notitia patriarchatuum]]''" mention the 9th century Avars as an existing Christian population.<ref name='Olajos'>OLAJOS , TERÉZ, [http://www.lib.jgytf.u-szeged.hu/folyoiratok/tiszataj/01-11/olajos.pdf Az avar továbbélés kérdésérõl], A 9. SZÁZADI AVAR TÖRTÉNELEM GÖRÖG ÉS LATIN NYELVÛ FORRÁSAI, Tiszatáj, 2001, pp. 50–56</ref> The Avars had already been mixing with the more numerous Slavs for generations, and they later came under the rule of external polities, such as the Franks, Bulgaria, and [[Great Moravia]].<ref>''The early medieval Balkans''. John Fine, Jr</ref>{{Page needed|date=November 2010}} The Avars in the region known as ''solitudo avarorum''{{mdash}}currently called the [[Alföld]]{{mdash}}vanished in an arc of three generations. They slowly merged with the Slavs to create a bilingual Turkic-Slavic-speaking people who were subjected to Frankish domination; the invading [[Magyars]] found this composite people in the late 9th century.<ref>András Róna-Tas, ''Hungarians and Europe in the early Middle Ages: an introduction to early Hungarian history'', Central European University Press, 1999, p. 264</ref> The ''[[De Administrando Imperio]]'', written around 950, clearly states the presence of an Avar population in the region of modern-day [[Croatia]].<ref name='Olajos'/>

== See also ==
* [[Huns]]
* [[Xiongnu]]
* [[Hephtalites]]
* [[Rouran Khaganate]]
* [[Pannonian Romance]]
* [[Treasure of Nagyszentmiklós]]
* [[Székelys]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|2}}

==References==
* {{cite book |last=Barford |first=P. M. |year=2001|title=The Early Slavs: Culture and Society in Early Medieval Eastern Europe |publisher= Cornell University Press |isbn=0-8014-3977-9|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Curta|first=Florin|authorlink=Florin Curta|title=The Making of the Slavs: History and Archaeology of the Lower Danube Region, c. 500–700|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rcFGhCVs0sYC|year=2001|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-42888-0|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Curta |first=Florin |year=2006 |title=Southeastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 500-1250 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-89452-4|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book
| last                  = Evans
| first                 = James Allan Stewart
| title                 = The Emperor Justinian And The Byzantine Empire
| url                   = https://books.google.com/books?id=xDNv6qZ_I-IC
| accessdate            = 2013-01-24
| series                = Greenwood Guides to Historic Events of the Ancient World
| year                  = 2005
| publisher             = Greenwood Publishing Group
| isbn                  = 9780313325823
| page                  = xxxv
| quote                 = 
}}
* {{cite book|last=Fine|first=John Van Antwerp, Jr.|authorlink=John Van Antwerp Fine, Jr.|title=The Early Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Sixth to the Late Twelfth Century|publisher=The University of Michigan Press|location=Michigan|year=1991|isbn=0-472-08149-7|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Havlík |first=Lubomír E. |editor-last=Champion |editor-first=T. C. | title=Centre and Periphery: Comparative Studies in Archaeology |publisher=Routledge |year=2004 |pages=227–237 |chapter=Great Moravia between the Franconians, Byzantium and Rome |ISBN=0-415-12253-8|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Kristó |first=Gyula |year=1996 |title=Hungarian History in the Ninth Century |publisher= Szegedi Középkorász Műhely |isbn=1-4039-6929-9 |ref=harv}}
*László Makkai & András Mócsy, editors, 2001. ''[http://mek.oszk.hu/03400/03407/html/41.html History of Transylvania'', II.4, "The period of Avar rule"]
*[[Walter Pohl]], "Conceptions of Ethnicity in Early Medieval Studies", ''Debating the Middle Ages: Issues and Readings'', ed. Lester K. Little and Barbara H. Rosenwein, (Blackwell), 1998, pp 13–24) p. 18 ([http://www.kroraina.com/bulgar/pohl_etnicity.html On-line text]).
*András Róna-Tas, ''Hungarians and Europe in the early Middle Ages: an introduction to early Hungarian history'', Central European University Press, 1999.
* {{cite book|last=Schutz|first=Herbert |title=The Carolingians in Central Europe, Their History, Arts, and Architecture: A Cultural History of Central Europe, 750-900|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8ZJONlzdyPsC&pg=PA61|year=2004|publisher=BRILL|isbn=90-04-13149-3|pages=61–|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Sinor|first=Denis|title=The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia|chapter=The Avars|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ST6TRNuWmHsC&pg=PA206|year=1990|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-24304-9|pages=206–|ref=harv}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Avar Khaganate}}
* [http://www.rmki.kfki.hu/~lukacs/AVARS.htm For The Memory Of The Avar Khagans]

{{Early Germanic Kingdoms}}

[[Category:Eurasian Avars| ]]
[[Category:First Bulgarian Empire]]
[[Category:Romania in the Early Middle Ages]]
[[Category:Moldova in the Early Middle Ages]]
[[Category:6th century in Romania]]
[[Category:7th century in Romania]]
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[[Category:9th century in Romania]]
[[Category:Khaganates]]
[[Category:Invasions of Europe]]