Anatolia sayfasının kaynağını görüntüle

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{{Other uses|Anatolia (disambiguation)|Asia Minor (disambiguation)}}
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[[File:Modern-day Turkey and Europe NASA modified.png|thumb|250px|The location of [[Turkey]] (within the rectangle) in reference to the [[Europe|European continent]]. Anatolia roughly corresponds to the [[Asia]]n part of Turkey, except the eastern parts historically known as the [[Armenian Highlands]]]]

'''Anatolia''' (from [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] {{lang|grc|Ἀνατολή}}, ''{{lang|gr-Latn|Anatolḗ}}'' – "east" or "(sun)rise"; in modern {{Lang-tr|Anadolu}}), in geography known as '''Asia Minor''' (from {{Lang-el|Μικρὰ Ἀσία}} ''{{lang|gr-Latn|Mīkrá Asía}}'' – "small Asia"; in modern {{Lang-tr|Küçük Asya}}), '''Asian Turkey''', '''Anatolian peninsula''', or '''Anatolian plateau''', is the westernmost protrusion of [[Asia]], which makes up the majority of modern-day [[Turkey]]. The region is bounded by the [[Black Sea]] to the north, the [[Mediterranean Sea]] to the south, and the [[Aegean Sea]] to the west. The [[Sea of Marmara]] forms a connection between the Black and Aegean Seas through the [[Bosphorus]] and [[Dardanelles]] straits and separates Anatolia from [[Thrace]] on the [[Europe]]an mainland.

Traditionally, Anatolia is considered to extend in the east to a line between the [[Gulf of Alexandretta]] and the Black Sea to the [[Armenian Highlands]] (Armenia Major). This region is now named and largely situated in the [[Eastern Anatolia Region]] of the far north east of [[Turkey]] and converges with the [[Lesser Caucasus]] – an area that was incorporated in the [[Russian Empire]] region of [[Transcaucasia]] in the 19th century.<ref>{{cite book|last=Adalian|first=Rouben Paul|title=Historical dictionary of Armenia|year=2010|publisher=Scarecrow Press|location=Lanham, MD|isbn=0810874504|pages=336–8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QS-vSjHObOYC|edition=2nd}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Grierson|first=Otto Mørkholm ; edited by Philip|title=Early Hellenistic coinage : from the accession of Alexander to the Peace of Apamea (336–188 B.C.)|year=1991|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=0521395046|page=175|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U_5Ez0kAOuIC|edition=Repr.|author2=Westermark, Ulla}}</ref> Thus, traditionally Anatolia is the territory that comprises approximately the western two-thirds of the Asian part of Turkey. However, since the [[Armenian Genocide]] and declaration of the Turkish Republic in 1923, the Armenian Highlands had been renamed Eastern Anatolia by the Turkish government,<ref name="Sahakyan">{{cite book|last=Sahakyan|first=Lusine|title=Turkification of the Toponyms in the Ottoman Empire and the Republic of Turkey|year=2010|publisher=[[Arod Books]]|location=Montreal|isbn=978-0969987970}}</ref> and Anatolia is often considered to be synonymous with Asian Turkey, which comprises almost the entire country;<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Hooglund |first=Eric |article=Anatolia |work=Encyclopedia of the Modern Middle East and North Africa |date=2004 |via=Encyclopedia.com |chapter-url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Anatolia.aspx |quote="Anatolia comprises more than 95 percent of Turkey's total land area." |publisher=Macmillan/Gale }}</ref> its eastern and southeastern borders are widely taken to be the [[Turkey|Turkish]] borders with neighboring [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Armenia]], [[Azerbaijan]], [[Iran]], [[Iraq]], and [[Syria]], in clockwise direction.

The [[Ancient Anatolians|ancient inhabitants of Anatolia]] spoke the now-extinct [[Anatolian languages]], which were largely replaced by the [[Greek language]] starting from [[classical antiquity]] and during the [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic]], [[Roman Empire|Roman]] and [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] periods. The [[Turkification]] of Anatolia began under the [[Seljuk Empire]] in the late 11th century and continued under the [[Ottoman Empire]] between the early 14th and early 20th centuries. However, various non-Turkic languages continue to be spoken by minorities in Anatolia today, including [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]], [[Assyrian Neo-Aramaic|Assyrian]], [[Armenian language|Armenian]], [[Arabic]], [[Laz language|Laz]], [[Georgian language|Georgian]], and [[Greek language|Greek]].

==Definition==
{{further|Geographical name changes in Turkey}}
[[File:AnatolieLimits.jpg|thumb||upright=1.7|The traditional definition of Anatolia within modern Turkey<ref name=Merriam>{{cite book |title=Merriam-Webster's Geographical Dictionary |last= |first= |year=2001 |isbn=0 87779 546 0 |page=46 |pages= |url=https://books.google.com/?id=Co_VIPIJerIC&pg=PA883&dq=anatolia+geographical+dictionary#v=onepage&q&f=true |accessdate=18 May 2001}}</ref><ref name="Mitchell">Stephen Mitchell, ''Anatolia: Land, Men, and Gods in Asia Minor. The Celts in Anatolia and the impact of Roman rule''. Clarendon Press, Aug 24, 1995 - 296 pages. ISBN 978-0198150299 [https://books.google.com/books?id=pUYtwuve40kC&dq=anatolia&hl=en&sa=X&ei=1OC3T-CDDoGsiAL4q7X-Bg&ved=0CDoQ6AEwAQ]</ref>]]
[[File:1907 map of Asia Minor-Atlas of Ancient and Classical Geography by Samuel Butler.jpg|thumb|upright=1.7|1907 map of Asia Minor, showing the local ancient kingdoms. The map includes the [[Aegean Islands|East Aegean Islands]] and the island of [[Cyprus]] to Anatolia's [[continental shelf]].]]

The Anatolian [[peninsula]], also called Asia Minor, <!-- Do not link to [[Asia Minor]] because it redirects to this page --> is bounded by the Black Sea to the north, the [[Mediterranean Sea]] to the south, the [[Aegean Sea]] to the west, and the Sea of Marmara to the northwest, which separates Anatolia from Thrace in Europe.

Traditionally, Anatolia is considered to extend in the east to an indefinite line running from the [[Gulf of Alexandretta]] to the Black Sea, coterminous with the Anatolian Plateau. This traditional geographical definition is used, for example, in the latest edition of ''[[Merriam-Webster's Geographical Dictionary]]'',<ref name=Merriam/> as well as the archeological community.<ref name="Mitchell"/> Under this definition, Anatolia is bounded to the east by the [[Armenian Highlands]], and the [[Euphrates]] before that river bends to the southeast to enter [[Mesopotamia]].<ref name="Mitchell"/> To the southeast, it is bounded by the ranges that separate it from the Orontes valley in [[Syria (region)]] and the Mesopotamian plain.<ref name="Mitchell"/>

Following the [[Armenian Genocide]] and [[History of the Republic of Turkey|establishment of the Republic of Turkey]], the Armenian Highlands (or [[Western Armenia]]) [[Eastern Anatolia Region#Substitution with Armenia|were renamed "Eastern Anatolia"]] (literally ''The Eastern East'') by the Turkish government,<ref name="Sahakyan"/><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hovannisian|first1=Richard|title=The Armenian genocide cultural and ethical legacies|date=2007|publisher=Transaction Publishers|location=New Brunswick, N.J.|isbn=1412835925|page=3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K3monyE4CVQC}}</ref> being effectively co-terminous with Asian Turkey. Turkey's [[First Geography Congress, Turkey|First Geography Congress]] in 1941 created two [[geographical regions of Turkey|regions]] to the east of the Gulf of Iskenderun-Black Sea line named the [[Eastern Anatolia Region]] and the [[Southeastern Anatolia Region]],<ref name="Yigit">Ali Yiğit, "Geçmişten Günümüze Türkiye'yi Bölgelere Ayıran Çalışmalar ve Yapılması Gerekenler", ''Ankara Üniversitesi Türkiye Coğrafyası Araştırma ve Uygulama Merkezi, IV. Ulural Coğrafya Sempozyumu, "Avrupa Birliği Sürecindeki Türkiye'de Bölgesel Farklılıklar"'', [http://www.fka.org.tr/SayfaDownload/bildiri_nihan_atay.pdf pp. 34–35.]</ref> the former largely corresponding to the western part of the Armenian Highland, the latter to the northern part of the Mesopotamian plain. This wider definition of Anatolia has gained widespread currency outside of Turkey and has, for instance, been adopted by ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/22897/Anatolia |title=Anatolia |author= |date= |work= |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica |accessdate=18 May 2012}}</ref> and other encyclopedic and general reference publications.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Anatolia.aspx |title=''Anatolia'' entries from ''Encyclopedia of the Modern Middle East and North Africa'', ''The Columbia Encyclopedia'', and ''A Dictionary of World History''|author= |date= |work= |publisher=Encyclopedia.com |accessdate=19 May 2012}}</ref> Davidian terms the expanded use of "Anatolia" to apply to territory formerly referred to as Armenia as "an historical imposition", and notes that a growing body of literature is uncomfortable with referring to the Ottoman East as "Eastern Anatolia"<ref>Vazken Khatchig Davidian, "Imagining Ottoman Armenia: Realism and Allegory in Garabed Nichanian's Provincial Wedding in Moush and Late Ottoman Art Criticism", p7 & footnote 34, in ''Études arméniennes contemporaines'' volume 6, 2015.</ref>

==Etymology==
The oldest known reference to Anatolia&nbsp;– as “Land of the [[Hittites|Hatti]]”&nbsp;– was found on [[Mesopotamia]]n [[cuneiform]] tablets from the period of the [[Akkadian Empire]] (2350–2150 BC).{{citation needed|date=October 2012}} The first name the Greeks used for the Anatolian peninsula was Ἀσία ([[:wikt:Asia|Asía]]),<ref>Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D*%29asi%2Fa Ἀσία], ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus</ref> presumably after the name of the [[Assuwa league]] in western Anatolia.{{citation needed|date=January 2013}} As the name of Asia came to be extended to other areas east of the Mediterranean, the name for Anatolia was specified as Μικρὰ Ἀσία (''Mikrá Asía'') or Asia Minor, meaning “Lesser Asia”, in [[Late Antiquity]].

The name ''Anatolia'' derives from the Greek {{lang|grc|ἀνατολή}} (''{{lang|grc-Latn|anatolḗ}}'') meaning “the East” or more literally “sunrise”, comparable to the Latin derived terms “[[levant]]” and “[[orient]]”.<ref name="etym">{{cite web|url= http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%237638| author=Henry George Liddell |author2=Robert Scott| title=A Greek-English Lexicon}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Anatolia|title=Online Etymology Dictionary|publisher=}}</ref> The precise reference of this term has varied over time, perhaps originally referring to the [[Aeolians|Aeolian]], [[Ionians|Ionian]] and [[Dorians|Dorian]] colonies on the west coast of Asia Minor. In the [[Byzantine Empire]], the [[Anatolic Theme]] (Aνατολικόν θέμα) was a ''[[Theme (Byzantine district)|theme]]'' covering the western and central parts of Turkey’s present-day [[Central Anatolia Region]].<ref name="First Thema 1952, p.&nbsp;59">“On the First Thema, called Anatolikón. This theme is called Anatolikón or Theme of the Anatolics, not because it is above and in the direction of the east where the sun rises, but because it lies to the East of Byzantium and Europe.” Constantine VII Porphyogenitus, ''De Thematibus'', ed. A. Pertusi. Vatican: [[Vatican Library]], 1952, pp.&nbsp;59–61.</ref><ref name="John Haldon 2002. Page 32">John Haldon, ''Byzantium, a History'', 2002. Page 32</ref> The modern Turkish form of Anatolia is ''Anadolu'', which again derives from the Greek name Aνατολή (''Anatolḗ''). The Russian male name [[Anatoly]] and the French [[Anatole (disambiguation)|Anatole]] share the same linguistic origin.

In English the name of ''[[Name of Turkey|Turkey]]'' for ancient Anatolia first appeared c.&nbsp;1369. It is derived from the [[Medieval Latin]] ''Turchia'' (meaning “Land of the Turks”, Turkish ''Türkiye''), which was originally used by the Europeans to define the [[Sultanate of Rum|Seljuk]] controlled parts of Anatolia after the [[Battle of Manzikert]].{{citation needed|date=January 2016}}

==History==
{{Main|History of Anatolia}}

===Prehistory ===
[[File:Museum of Anatolian Civilizations003.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Mural of [[aurochs]], a [[deer]], and humans in [[Çatalhöyük]], which is the largest and best-preserved Neolithic site found to date. It was registered as a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]] in 2012.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://globalheritagefund.org/onthewire/blog/catalhoyuk_world_heritage_list |title=Çatalhöyük added to UNESCO World Heritage List |publisher=Global Heritage Fund |date=3 July 2012 |accessdate=9 February 2013}}</ref>]]

Human habitation in Anatolia dates back to the [[Paleolithic]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Stiner |first=Mary C. |author2=Kuhn, Steven L. |author3= Güleç, Erksin |title=Early Upper Paleolithic shell beads at Üçağızlı Cave I (Turkey): Technology and the socioeconomic context of ornament life-histories |journal=Journal of Human Evolution |volume=64 |issue=5 |pages=380–398 |doi=10.1016/j.jhevol.2013.01.008 |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S004724841300016X |issn=0047-2484 |year=2013 |pmid=23481346}}</ref> [[Neolithic]] Anatolia has been [[Anatolian hypothesis|proposed]] as the [[Urheimat|homeland]] of the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European language family]], although linguists tend to favour a [[Kurgan hypothesis|later origin]] in the steppes north of the Black Sea. However, it is clear that the [[Anatolian languages]], the oldest branch of Indo-European, have been spoken in Anatolia since at least the 19th century BC.

===Ancient Near East (Bronze and Iron Ages)===

====Hattians and Hurrians====
The earliest historical records of Anatolia stem from the southeast of the region and are from the [[Mesopotamia]]n-based [[Akkadian Empire]] during the reign of [[Sargon of Akkad]] in the 24th century BC. Scholars generally believe the earliest indigenous populations of Anatolia were the [[Hattians]] and [[Hurrians]]. The Hattians spoke a [[Hattic language|language]] of unclear affiliation, and the [[Hurrian language]] belongs to a small family called [[Hurro-Urartian languages|Hurro-Urartian]], all these languages now being extinct; relationships with indigenous [[languages of the Caucasus]] have been proposed<ref>Bryce 2005:12</ref> but are not generally accepted. The region was famous for exporting raw materials, and areas of [[Hittite empire|Hattian]]- and Hurrian-populated southeast Anatolia were colonised by the Akkadians.<ref name="Freeman"/>

====Assyrian Empire (21st–18th centuries BC)====
After the fall of the [[Akkadian Empire]] in the mid-21st century BC, the Assyrians, who were the northern branch of the Akkadian people, colonised parts of the region between the 21st and mid-18th centuries BC and claimed its resources, notably [[silver]]. One of the numerous cuneiform records dated circa 20th century BC, found in Anatolia at the Assyrian colony of [[Kültepe|Kanesh]], uses an advanced system of trading computations and credit lines.<ref name="Freeman">{{cite book|last=Freeman|first=Charles|title= Egypt, Greece and Rome: Civilizations of the Ancient Mediterranean|publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1999|isbn=0-19-872194-3}}</ref>

====Hittite Kingdoms (17th–12th centuries BC)====
[[File:Lion Gate, Hattusa 01.jpg|thumb|The Lion Gate at [[Hattusa]], capital of the [[Hittites|Hittite Empire]]. The city's history dates to before 2000 BC.]]
Unlike the Akkadians and their descendants, the Assyrians, whose Anatolian possessions were peripheral to their core lands in [[Mesopotamia]], the [[Hittites]] were centred at [[Hattusa]] in north-central Anatolia by 2000 BC. They were speakers of an Indo-European language, the [[Hittite language]], known as the language of Ness. Originating from [[Kültepe|Nesa]], they conquered Hattusa in the 18th century BC, imposing themselves over Hattian- and Hurrian-speaking populations. According to the most widely accepted [[Kurgan theory]] on the [[Proto-Indo-European homeland]], however, the Hittites (along with the other Indo-European [[ancient Anatolians]]) were themselves relatively recent [[Indo-European migrations|immigrants]] to Anatolia from the north.

The Hittites adopted the cuneiform script, invented in Mesopotamia. During the Late Bronze Age circa 2000 BC, they created an empire, the [[Hittites#New Kingdom|Hittite New Kingdom]], which reached its height in the 14th century BC, controlling much of Asia Minor. The empire included a large part of Anatolia, northwestern [[Syria]] and northwest upper Mesopotamia. They failed to reach the Anatolian coasts of the Black Sea, however, as another non-Indo-European people, the [[Kaskians]], had established a kingdom there in the 17th century BC, displacing earlier [[Palaic language|Palaic-speaking]] Indo-Europeans.<ref>Carruba, O. ''Das Palaische. Texte, Grammatik, Lexikon''. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1970. StBoT 10</ref> Much of the history of the Hittite Empire concerned war with the rival empires of [[Egypt]], [[Assyria]] and the [[Mitanni]].<ref name="Roux">Georges Roux - Ancient Iraq</ref>

The [[Egyptians]] eventually{{dubious|Where do they suddenly come up from? "Eventually" requires prior mention!|date=May 2015}} withdrew from the region after failing to gain the upper hand over the Hittites and becoming wary of the power of Assyria, which had destroyed the Mitanni Empire.<ref name="Roux"/> The Assyrians and Hittites were then left to battle over control of eastern and southern Anatolia and colonial territories in [[Syria]]. The Assyrians had better success than the Egyptians, annexing much Hittite (and Hurrian) territory in these regions.<ref name="Georges Roux 1966">Georges Roux, Ancient Iraq. Penguin Books, 1966.</ref>

====Neo-Hittite kingdoms (c. 1180–700 BC)====
After 1180 BC, during the [[Late Bronze Age collapse]], the Hittite empire disintegrated into several independent [[Syro-Hittite states]], subsequent to losing much territory to the [[Middle Assyrian Empire]] and being finally overrun by the [[Phrygians]], another Indo-European people who are believed to have migrated from the [[Balkans]]. The Phrygian expansion into southeast Anatolia was eventually halted by the Assyrians, who controlled that region.<ref name="Georges Roux 1966"/>

:'''Arameans'''
'''[[Arameans]]''' encroached over the borders of south central Anatolia in the century or so after the fall of the Hittite empire, and some of the Syro-Hittite states in this region became an amalgam of Hittites and Arameans. These became known as [[Syro-Hittite states]].

:'''Luwians'''
[[File:Dalyan - Caunos2.JPG|right|thumb|Lycian rock cut tombs of [[Kaunos]] (Dalyan)]]
In central and western Anatolia, another Indo-European people, the [[Luwian language|Luwians]], came to the fore, circa 2000 BC. Their language was closely related to [[Hittite language|Hittite]].<ref>Melchert 2003</ref> The general consensus amongst scholars is that Luwian was spoken—to a greater or lesser degree—across a large area of western Anatolia, including (possibly) [[Wilusa]] ([[Troy]]), the Seha River Land (to be identified with the [[Gediz River|Hermos]] and/or [[Bakırçay|Kaikos]] valley), and the kingdom of Mira-Kuwaliya with its core territory of the Maeander valley.<ref>Watkins 1994; id. 1995:144–51; Starke 1997; Melchert 2003; for the geography Hawkins 1998</ref> From the 9th century BC, Luwian regions coalesced into a number of states such as [[Lydia]], [[Caria]] and [[Lycia]], all of which had [[Greece|Hellenic]] influence.

====Neo-Assyrian Empire (10th–7th centuries BC)====
From the 10th to late 7th centuries BC, much of Anatolia (particularly the east, central, southwestern and southeastern regions) fell to the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]], including all of the [[Syro-Hittite states]], Phrygia, [[Tabal]], [[Cilicia]], [[Kingdom of Commagene]], [[Caria]], Lydia, the [[Cimmerians]] and [[Scythians]] and swathes of [[Cappadocia]].

The Neo-Assyrian empire collapsed due to a bitter series of civil wars followed by a combined attack by [[Medes]], [[Persian people|Persians]], Scythians and their own [[Babylonia]]n relations. The last Assyrian city to fall was [[Harran]] in southeast Anatolia. This city was the birthplace of the last king of [[Babylon]], the Assyrian [[Nabonidus]] and his son and regent [[Belshazzar]]. Much of the region then fell to the short-lived Iran-based [[Medes|Median Empire]], with the Babylonians and Scythians briefly appropriating some territory.

====Cimmerian and Scythian invasions (8th–7th centuries BC)====
From the late 8th century BC, a new wave of Indo-European-speaking raiders entered northern and northeast Anatolia: the [[Cimmerians]] and [[Scythians]]. The Cimmerians overran [[Phrygia]] and the Scythians threatened to do the same to Urartu and [[Lydia]], before both were finally checked by the Assyrians.

====Greek West====
The north-western coast of Anatolia was inhabited by Greeks of the [[Achaeans (tribe)|Achaean]]/[[Mycenaean Greece|Mycenaean]] culture from the 20th century BC, related to the Greeks of south eastern Europe and the [[Aegean Islands|Aegean]].<ref name="ReferenceA">Carl Roebuck, ''The World of Ancient Times''</ref> Beginning with the [[Bronze Age collapse]] at the end of the 2nd millennium BC, the west coast of Anatolia was settled by [[Ionian Greeks]], usurping the area of the related but earlier [[Mycenaean Greeks]]. Over several centuries, numerous Ancient Greek [[city-state]]s were established on the coasts of Anatolia. Greeks started Western philosophy on the western coast of Anatolia ([[Pre-Socratic philosophy]]).<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

===Classical antiquity===
[[File:Map Anatolia ancient regions-en.svg|thumb|left|300px|Ancient regions of Anatolia (500 BC)]]
[[File:Templeofathenaprienemay2007.jpg|thumb|right|The temple of [[Athena]] (funded by [[Alexander the Great]]) in the [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] city of [[Priene]]]]
In classical antiquity, Anatolia was described by [[Herodotus]] and later historians as divided into regions named after tribes such as [[Lydia]], [[Lycia]], [[Caria]], [[Mysia]], [[Bithynia]], [[Phrygia]], [[Galatia]], [[Lycaonia]], [[Pisidia]], [[Paphlagonia]], [[Cilicia]], and [[Cappadocia]]. By that time, the populations were a mixture of the ancient Anatolian or "[[Syro-Hittite]]" substrate and post-Bronze-Age-collapse "Thraco-Phrygian" and more recent Greco-Macedonian incursions.

[[File:Dying gaul.jpg|thumb|left|The ''[[Dying Gaul|Dying Galatian]]'' was a famous statue commissioned some time between [[Hellenistic period|230–220&nbsp;BC]] by King [[Attalus I|Attalos I]] of [[Pergamon]] to honor his victory over the [[Celts|Celtic]] [[Galatia]]ns in Anatolia.]]

Anatolia is known as the birthplace of minted [[coin]]age (as opposed to unminted coinage, which first appears in [[Mesopotamia]] at a much earlier date) as a medium of exchange, some time in the 7th century BC in Lydia. The use of minted coins continued to flourish during the [[Hellenistic period|Greek]] and [[Roman Empire|Roman]] eras.<ref>{{Cite book|isbn=0-415-08992-1|last=Howgego|first=C. J.|title=Ancient History from Coins|authorlink=Christopher Howgego| year=1995}}</ref><ref>[http://www.asiaminorcoins.com/ Asia Minor Coins] - an index of Greek and Roman coins from Asia Minor (ancient Anatolia)</ref>

During the 6th century BC, all of Anatolia was conquered by the [[Persia]]n [[Achaemenid Empire]], the Persians having usurped the [[Medes]] as the dominant dynasty in [[Iran]]. In 499 BC, the Ionian city-states on the west coast of Anatolia rebelled against Persian rule. The [[Ionian Revolt]], as it became known, though quelled, initiated the [[Greco-Persian Wars]], which ended in a Greek victory in 449 BC, and the Ionian cities regained their independence, alongside the withdrawal of the Persian forces from their European territories.

In 334 BC, the [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedonian]] Greek king [[Alexander the Great]] conquered the peninsula from the Achaemenid Persian Empire.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Roisman|first1=Joseph|last2=Worthington|first2=Ian|title=A Companion to Ancient Macedonia|publisher=John Wiley and Sons|year=2010|isbn=1-4051-7936-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lkYFVJ3U-BIC|ref=harv}}</ref> Alexander's conquest opened up the interior of Asia Minor to Greek settlement and influence.

[[File:Nemrut Dağı 12.jpg|thumb|Sanctuary of [[Commagene]] Kings on [[Mount Nemrut]] (1st century BC)]]
Following the death of Alexander and the breakup of his empire, Anatolia was ruled by a series of Hellenistic kingdoms, such as the [[Attalid dynasty|Attalids of Pergamum]] and the [[Seleucids]], the latter controlling most of Anatolia. A period of peaceful [[Hellenization]] followed, such that the local Anatolian languages had been supplanted by Greek by the 1st century BC. In 133 BC the last Attalid king bequeathed his kingdom to the [[Roman Republic]], and western and central Anatolia came under [[Roman Republic|Roman]] control, but [[Hellenistic culture]] remained predominant. Further annexations by Rome, in particular of the [[Kingdom of Pontus]] by [[Pompey]], brought all of Anatolia under Roman control, except for the eastern frontier with the [[Parthian Empire]], which remained unstable for centuries, causing a series of wars, culminating in the [[Roman-Parthian Wars]].

===Early Christian period===
After the division of the Roman Empire, Anatolia became part of the East Roman, or [[Byzantine Empire]]. Anatolia was one of the first places where Christianity spread, so that by the 4th century AD, western and central Anatolia were overwhelmingly Christian and Greek-speaking. For the next 600 years, while Imperial possessions in Europe were subjected to barbarian invasions, Anatolia would be the center of the Hellenic world. Byzantine control was challenged by [[Arabs|Arab]] raids starting in the eighth century (see [[Arab–Byzantine wars]]), but in the ninth and tenth century a resurgent Byzantine Empire regained its lost territories, including even long lost territory such as [[Armenia]] and [[Syria]] (ancient [[Aram (biblical region)|Aram]]).

===Islamic rule replacing Byzantium===
[[File:Asia Minor ca 842 AD.svg|thumb|right|300px|[[Byzantine Anatolia]] and the Byzantine-Arab frontier zone in the mid-9th century]]
[[File:Anatolia1300.png|thumb|right|300px|Beyliks and other states around Anatolia, c. 1300.]]

In the 10 years following the [[Battle of Manzikert]] in 1071, the [[Seljuk Turks]] from [[Central Asia]] migrated over large areas of Anatolia, with particular concentrations around the northwestern rim.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Byzantine Empire 1025–1204 |last=Angold |first=Michael |year=1997 |isbn=0-582-29468-1 |page=117}}</ref> The Turkish language and the Islamic religion were gradually introduced as a result of the Seljuk conquest, and this period marks the start of Anatolia's slow transition from predominantly Christian and Greek-speaking, to predominantly Muslim and Turkish-speaking (although ethnic groups such as Armenians, Greeks, Assyrians remained numerous and retained Christianity and their native languages). In the following century, the Byzantines managed to reassert their control in western and northern Anatolia. Control of Anatolia was then split between the Byzantine Empire and the Seljuk [[Sultanate of Rûm]], with the Byzantine holdings gradually being reduced.<ref name=Balyuzi/>

In 1255, the [[Mongols]] swept through eastern and central Anatolia, and would remain until 1335. The [[Ilkhanate]] garrison was stationed near [[Ankara]].<ref name=Balyuzi>H. M. Balyuzi ''Muḥammad and the course of Islám'', p.&nbsp;342</ref><ref>John Freely ''Storm on Horseback: The Seljuk Warriors of Turkey'', p.&nbsp;83</ref> After the decline of the Ilkhanate from 1335–1353, the [[Mongol Empire]]'s legacy in the region was the [[Uyghur people|Uyghur]] [[Eretna Dynasty]] that was overthrown by [[Kadi Burhan al-Din]] in 1381.<ref>Clifford Edmund Bosworth-The new Islamic dynasties: a chronological and genealogical manual, p.&nbsp;234</ref>

By the end of the 14th century, most of Anatolia was controlled by various [[Anatolian beyliks]]. Smyrna fell in 1330, and the last Byzantine stronghold in Anatolia, Philadelphia, fell in 1390. The [[Turkmen people|Turkmen]] Beyliks were under the control of the Mongols, at least nominally, through declining Seljuk sultans.<ref>Mehmet Fuat Köprülü, Gary Leiser-The origins of the Ottoman Empire, p.&nbsp;33</ref><ref>Peter Partner ''God of battles: holy wars of Christianity and Islam'', p.&nbsp;122</ref> The Beyliks did not mint coins in the names of their own leaders while they remained under the suzerainty of the [[Mongol]] [[Ilkhanids]].<ref>''Osman's Dream: The History of the Ottoman Empire'', p.&nbsp;13</ref> The [[Osmanli]] ruler [[Osman I]] was the first Turkish ruler who minted coins in his own name in 1320s, for it bears the legend "Minted by Osman son of Ertugul".<ref>Artuk - O''smanli Beyliginin Kurucusu'', 27f</ref> Since the minting of coins was a prerogative accorded in Islamic practice only to a [[sovereign]], it can be considered that the Osmanli, or Ottoman Turks, became formally independent from the Mongol Khans.<ref>Pamuk - ''A Monetary History'', pp.&nbsp;30–31</ref>

===Ottoman Empire===
Among the [[Turkmen people|Turkmen]] leaders the Ottomans emerged as great power under Osman and his son [[Orhan I]].{{citation needed|date=May 2015}} The Anatolian beyliks were successively absorbed into the rising [[Ottoman Empire]] during the 15th century.{{citation needed|date=May 2015}} It is not well understood how the Osmanli, or Ottoman Turks, came to dominate their neighbours, as the history of medieval Anatolia is still little known.<ref>{{cite book|last=Finkel|first=Caroline|title=Osman's Dream: The History of the Ottoman Empire |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9cTHyUQoTyUC&pg=PA5 |year=2007 |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0-465-00850-6 |page=5 |accessdate=6 June 2013 }}</ref> The Ottomans completed the conquest of the peninsula in 1517 with the taking of [[Halicarnassus]] (modern [[Bodrum]]) from the [[Knights of Saint John]].{{citation needed|date=May 2015}}

===Modern times===
[[File:Ethnicturkey1911.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Ethnographic map of Anatolia from 1911.]]

With the acceleration of the decline of the Ottoman Empire in the early 19th century, and as a result of the expansionist policies of [[Czarist Russia]] in the [[Caucasus]], many Muslim nations and groups in that region, mainly [[Circassians]], [[Tatars]], [[Azeris]], [[Lezgian people|Lezgis]], [[Chechens]] and several [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] groups left their homelands and settled in Anatolia. As the Ottoman Empire further shrank in the [[Balkan]] regions and then fragmented during the [[Balkan Wars]], much of the non-Christian populations of its former possessions, mainly Balkan Muslims ([[Bosnians]], [[Albanians]], [[Turkish people|Turks]], [[Pomaks|Muslim Bulgarians]] and [[Greek Muslims]] such as the [[Vallahades]] from [[Macedonia (Greece)|Greek Macedonia]]), were resettled in various parts of Anatolia, mostly in formerly Christian villages throughout Anatolia.

A continuous reverse migration occurred since the early 19th century, when Greeks from Anatolia, Constantinople and Pontus area migrated toward the newly independent Kingdom of Greece, and also towards the United States, southern part of the Russian Empire, Latin America and rest of Europe.

Following the Russo-Persian Treaty of Turkmenchay (1828) and the incorporation of the Eastern Armenia into the Russian Empire, another migration involved the large Armenian population of Anatolia, which recorded significant migration rates from Western Armenia (Eastern Anatolia) toward the Russian Empire, especially toward its newly established Armenian provinces.

Anatolia remained [[multi-ethnic]] until the early 20th century (see the [[rise of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire]]). During World War I, the [[Armenian Genocide]], the [[Greek genocide]] (especially in [[Pontus]]), and the [[Assyrian genocide]] almost entirely removed the ancient indigenous communities of [[Armenians|Armenian]], [[Greeks|Greek]], and [[Assyrian people|Assyrian]] populations in Anatolia and surrounding regions. Following the [[Greco-Turkish War of 1919–1922]], most remaining ethnic Anatolian Greeks were forced out during the 1923 [[population exchange between Greece and Turkey]]. Many more have left Turkey since, leaving less than 5,000 Greeks in Anatolia today. Since the foundation of the [[Republic of Turkey]] in 1923, Anatolia has been within Turkey, its inhabitants being mainly Turks and Kurds (see [[demographics of Turkey]] and [[history of Turkey]]).

==Geography==
{{Main|Geography of Turkey}}

===Geology===
{{Main|Geology of Turkey}}
Anatolia's terrain is structurally complex. A central [[massif]] composed of uplifted blocks and downfolded [[Trough (geology)|troughs]], covered by recent [[Deposit (geology)|deposits]] and giving the appearance of a plateau with rough terrain, is wedged between two folded mountain ranges that converge in the east. True lowland is confined to a few narrow coastal strips along the Aegean, Mediterranean, and Black Sea coasts. Flat or gently sloping land is rare and largely confined to the deltas of the [[Kızıl River]], the coastal plains of [[Çukurova]] and the valley floors of the [[Gediz River]] and the [[Büyük Menderes River]] as well as some interior high plains in Anatolia, mainly around [[Lake Tuz]] (Salt Lake) and the [[Konya]] Basin (''Konya Ovasi'').

===Climate===
{{Main|Climate of Turkey}}
<gallery caption="Temperatures of Anatolia">
image:Klima_ankara.png|[[Ankara]] (central Anatolia)
image:Klima_antalya.png|[[Antalya]] (southern Anatolia)
image:Klima_van.png|[[Van, Turkey|Van]] (eastern Anatolia)
</gallery>

Anatolia has a varied range of climates. The central plateau is characterized by a continental climate, with hot summers and cold snowy winters. The south and west coasts enjoy a typical Mediterranean climate, with mild rainy winters, and warm dry summers.<ref name=Prothero19>{{cite book|last=Prothero|first=W.G.|title=Anatolia|year=1920|publisher=H.M. Stationery Office|location=London|url=http://www.wdl.org/en/item/11766/view/1/19/}}</ref> The Black Sea and Marmara coasts have a temperate oceanic climate, with cool foggy summers and much rainfall throughout the year.

===Ecoregions===
There is a diverse number of plant and animal communities.

The mountains and coastal plain of northern Anatolia experiences humid and mild climate. There are [[temperate broadleaf and mixed forest|temperate broadleaf, mixed]] and [[temperate coniferous forest|coniferous]] forests. The central and eastern plateau, with its drier [[continental climate]], has deciduous forests and forest steppes. Western and southern Anatolia, which have a [[Mediterranean climate]], contain [[Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub]] ecoregions.
* [[Euxine-Colchic deciduous forests]]: These temperate broadleaf and mixed forests extend across northern Anatolia, lying between the mountains of northern Anatolia and the Black Sea. They include the enclaves of [[temperate rainforest]] lying along the southeastern coast of the Black Sea in eastern Turkey and Georgia.<ref>{{WWF ecoregion|id=pa0422|name=Euxine-Colchic deciduous forests|accessdate=May 25, 2008}}</ref>
* [[Northern Anatolian conifer and deciduous forests]]: These forests occupy the mountains of northern Anatolia, running east and west between the coastal Euxine-Colchic forests and the drier, continental climate forests of central and eastern Anatolia.<ref>{{WWF ecoregion|id=pa0515|name=Northern Anatolian conifer and deciduous forests|accessdate=May 25, 2008}}</ref>
* Central Anatolian deciduous forests: These forests of deciduous oaks and evergreen pines cover the plateau of central Anatolia.<ref>{{WWF ecoregion|id=pa0410|name=Central Anatolian deciduous forests|accessdate=May 25, 2008}}</ref>
* Central Anatolian [[steppe]]: These dry grasslands cover the drier valleys and surround the saline lakes of central Anatolia, and include [[halophytic]] (salt tolerant) plant communities.<ref>{{WWF ecoregion|name=Central Anatolian steppe|accessdate=May 25, 2008|id=pa0803}}</ref>
* Eastern Anatolian deciduous forests: This ecoregion occupies the plateau of eastern Anatolia. The drier and more continental climate is beneficial for steppe-forests dominated by deciduous oaks, with areas of shrubland, montane forest, and valley forest.<ref>{{WWF ecoregion|id=pa0420|name=Eastern Anatolian deciduous forests|accessdate=May 25, 2008}}</ref>
* Anatolian conifer and deciduous mixed forests: These forests occupy the western, Mediterranean-climate portion of the Anatolian plateau. Pine forests and mixed pine and oak woodlands and shrublands are predominant.<ref>{{WWF ecoregion|name=Anatolian conifer and deciduous mixed forests|accessdate=May 25, 2008|id=pa1202}}</ref>
* Aegean and Western Turkey sclerophyllous and mixed forests: These Mediterranean-climate forests occupy the coastal lowlands and valleys of western Anatolia bordering the Aegean Sea. The ecoregion has forests of [[Turkish pine]] ''(Pinus brutia)'', oak forests and woodlands, and [[maquis shrubland]] of Turkish pine and evergreen [[sclerophyll]]ous trees and shrubs, including [[Olive]] ''(Olea europaea)'', [[Arbutus unedo|Strawberry Tree]] ''(Arbutus unedo)'', ''[[Arbutus andrachne]]'', Kermes Oak ''([[Quercus coccifera]])'', and [[Bay Laurel]] ''(Laurus nobilis)''.<ref>{{WWF ecoregion|name=Aegean and Western Turkey sclerophyllous and mixed forests|accessdate=May 25, 2008|id=pa1201}}</ref>
* Southern Anatolian montane conifer and deciduous forests: These mountain forests occupy the Mediterranean-climate [[Taurus Mountains]] of southern Anatolia. Conifer forests are predominant, chiefly Anatolian black pine ''([[Pinus nigra]])'', Cedar of Lebanon ''([[Cedrus libani]])'', Taurus fir ''([[Abies cilicica]])'', and [[juniper]] ''([[Juniperus foetidissima]]'' and ''[[Juniperus excelsa|J. excelsa]])''. Broadleaf trees include oaks, [[hornbeam]], and [[maple]]s.<ref>{{WWF ecoregion|name=Southern Anatolian montane conifer and deciduous forests|accessdate=May 25, 2008|id=pa1220}}</ref>
* [[Eastern Mediterranean conifer-sclerophyllous-broadleaf forests]]: This ecoregion occupies the coastal strip of southern Anatolia between the Taurus Mountains and the Mediterranean Sea. Plant communities include broadleaf sclerophyllous maquis shrublands, forests of Aleppo Pine ''(''Pinus halepensis'')'' and Turkish Pine ''(Pinus brutia)'', and dry oak ''(Quercus'' spp.) woodlands and steppes.<ref>{{WWF ecoregion|id=pa1207|name=Eastern Mediterranean conifer-sclerophyllous-broadleaf forests|accessdate=May 25, 2008}}</ref>

==Demographics==
{{main|Demographics of Turkey}}

Almost 80% of the people currently residing in Anatolia are [[Turkish people|Turks]]. [[Kurds]] constitute a major community in southeastern Anatolia,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibtimes.com/kurdish-majority-turkey-within-one-generation-705466|title=A Kurdish Majority In Turkey Within One Generation?|date=May 6, 2012|publisher=}}</ref> and are the largest ethnic minority. [[Abkhazians]], [[Albanians]], [[Arabs]], [[Arameans]], [[Armenians]], [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]], [[Azerbaijani people|Azerbaijanis]], [[Bosniaks]], [[Circassians]], [[Gagauz people|Gagauz]], [[Georgians]], [[Serbs]], [[Greeks]], [[Hemshin people|Hemshin]], [[Jews]], [[Laz people|Laz]], [[Levantines]], [[Pomaks]], [[Zaza people|Zazas]] and a number of other ethnic groups also live in Anatolia in smaller numbers.{{citation needed|date=October 2013}}

==Cuisine==
[[Bamia]] is a traditional Anatolian-era stew dish prepared using [[lamb and mutton|lamb]], [[okra]] and tomatoes as primary ingredients.<ref>{{cite book | last=Webb | first=L.S. | last2=Roten | first2=L.G. | title=The Multicultural Cookbook for Students | publisher=ABC-CLIO | series=EBL-Schweitzer | year=2009 | isbn=978-0-313-37559-0 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fgWrCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA286 | pages=286–287}}</ref>

==See also==
{{columns|width=auto
| col1 = 
* [[Aeolis]]
* [[Alaca Höyük|Alacahöyük]]
* [[Anatolian hypothesis]]
* [[Anatolian languages]]
* [[Anatolianism]]
* [[Anatolian leopard]]
* [[Anatolian Plate]]
* [[Anatolian Shepherd]]
* [[Anatolian beyliks]]
* [[Ancient kingdoms of Anatolia]]
* [[Antigonid dynasty]]
* [[Attalid dynasty]]
* [[Bithynia]]
* [[Byzantine Empire]]
* [[Cappadocia]]
* [[Caria]]
* [[Çatalhöyük]]
* [[Cilicia]]
|col2 = 
* [[Doris (Asia Minor)]]
* [[Empire of Nicaea]]
* [[Empire of Trebizond]]
* [[Ephesus]]
* [[Galatia]]
* [[Gordium]]
* [[Halicarnassus]]
* [[Hattusa]]
* [[History of Anatolia]]
* [[Hittites]]
* [[Ionia]]
* [[Lycaonia]]
* [[Lycia]]
* [[Lydia]]
* [[Midas]]
* [[Miletus]]
* [[Myra]]
* [[Mysia]]
* [[Ottoman Empire]]
* [[Pamphylia]]
* [[Paphlagonia]]
|col3=
* [[Pentarchy]]
* [[Pergamon]]
* [[Phrygia]]
* [[Pisidia]]
* [[Pontic Greeks]]
* [[Pontus]]
* [[Rumi]]
* [[Saint Anatolia]]
* [[John the Apostle|Saint John]]
* [[Saint Nicholas]]
* [[Paul the Apostle|Saint Paul]]
* [[Sardis]]
* [[Seleucid Empire]]
* [[Great Seljuq Empire]]
* [[Seven churches of Asia]]
* [[Seven Sleepers]]
* [[Sultanate of Rum]]
* [[Tarsus, Mersin|Tarsus]]
* [[Troad]]
* [[Troy]]
* [[Turkey]]
* [[Turkic migration]]
}}

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==Bibliography==
{{refbegin}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Steadman|first1=Sharon R.|last2=McMahon|first2=Gregory|year=2011|title=The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia:(10,000–323 BCE)|publisher=Oxford University Press Inc|isbn=9780195376142|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.001.0001|editor1-last=McMahon|editor1-first=Gregory|editor2-last=Steadman|editor2-first=Sharon|postscript=<!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}}}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Anatolia}}
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